



r.. •• 



THE WORKER AND HIS WORK SERIES 

A CORRESPONDENCE COURSE FOR 
SUNDAY SCHOOL WORKERS 






'(•■■ 




THE WORKER AND 
Bs HIS BIBLE 

75 
E5 





Book JLi 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



The Worker and His Work Series 



A Correspondence Course for 
Sunday School Workers 



THE WORKER AND 
HIS BIBLE 

F. C. EISELEN 

Professor of Semitic Languages and Old Testament Exegesis 
Garrett Biblical Institute 

AND 

W. C. BARCLAY 

Educational Director of The Board of Sunday Schools 



Authorized and issued by the Board of Sunday 
Schools of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 57 
Washington Street, Chicago, Illinois, David 
G. Downey, Corresponding Secretary, in co-opera- 
tion WITH John T. McFarland, Editor of Sunday 
School Publications, and with his approval. 
Printed for the Board by Jennings and Graham 



£)^ 



•1^ 



^^^< 



Copyright, 1909, by 
The Board of Sunday Schools 

OF THE 

Methodist Episcopal Church 



2 48 6-15: 



The Maps used in this book are pub- 
lished by The Methodist Book Con- 
cern. New York and Cincinnati, and 
maybe obtained from them in wall size. 



CONTENTS 

PART I 
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE 

PAGE 

I. The Bible — A Body of Literature - - - 7 

II. The Bible — Records of Divine Revelation - i6 

III. How We Got Our Bible 23 

IV. "Why Study the Bible 35 

V. How Study the Bible 46 

PART II 

THE OLD TESTAMENT 

VI. The Historical Portions of the Pentateuch and 

Joshua - - - - . - - - 59 

VII. The Legal Portions of the Pentateuch - 68 

VIII. The Judges and the United Monarchy - - 76 
IX. The Divided Monarchy, the Exile, and the 

Restoration 87 

X. The Devotional Literature of the Old Testa- 
ment 99 

XI. The Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament hi 
XII. The Hebrew Prophets to the Close of the 

Eighth Century B. C. 124 

XIII. The Prophets Subsequent to the Eighth Cen- 
tury B. C. 137 

3 



CONTENTS 

PART III 
THE NEW TESTAMENT 

PAGE 

XIV. New Testament Times 153 

XV. The Life of Jesus 163 

XVI. The Gospels 174 

XVII. The Acts and the Beginnings of Christianity 195 

XVIII. The Life and Letters of Paul - - - - 205 

XIX. The Life and Letters of Paul — Continued - 219 

XX. The General Epistles and Revelation - - 230 



PART I 

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF 
THE BIBLE 

By F. C. Eiselen 



CHAPTER I 

THE BIBLE— A BODY OF LITERATURE 

1. The Bible a Collection of Books. The word Bible is 
derived from the Greek. It is the plural form biblia of a 
noun biblion, which may be translated "Little Book." From 
the Greek language the word passed into the Latin, where 
biblia came to be regarded as a noun in the singular. As 
such it was early adopted into the language of the western 
Church, and it is so used in the languages of modern Europe. 
The use of the noun as a singular is responsible for much 
misapprehension, because the Bible can never be rightly ap- 
preciated unless it is borne in mind that it is not so much 
one book as a library consisting of many books, written by 
different authors, in different times and places, and repre- 
senting different stages of religious and ethical development. 
There are sixty-six separate writings in the collection as 
found in the modern English translations. The Bible is di- 
vided into two great divisions called the Old Testament and 
the New Testament respectively. The designation Testa- 
ment is somewhat misleading. It arose from an accidental 
mistranslation into Latin of a Greek word meaning covenant, 
which in turn goes back to a Hebrew word having the same 
meaning. Hence it would be far more accurate to speak of 
the Old Covenant and the New Covenant; and, indeed, one 
of the early Church fathers speaks of "the divine Scriptures, 
the so-called Old and New Covenants." We have, then, in 
the Old and New Testaments various records of the two 



8 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

dispensations, or covenants, centering in Moses and Jesus 
respectively. 

2. Contents of the Old Testament. Of the sixty-six 
books in the Bible, thirty-nine belong to the Old Testament, 
twenty-seven to the New. The thirty-nine books of the Old 
Testament are ordinarily arranged in four groups: 

I. Law — Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deu- 
teronomy 5 

XL History — Joshua, Judges, Ruth, i and 2 Samuel, 
I and 2 Kings, i and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Ne- 
hemiah, Esther 12 

III. Poetry — Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 

Song of Songs 5 

IV. Prophecy — (i) Major Prophets: Isaiah, Jere- 

miah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel 5 

(2) Minor Prophets : Hosea, Joel, Amos, 
Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, 
Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi 12 

Total 39 

3. Contents of the New Testament. The twenty-seven 
books of the New Testament may be arranged in three 
groups : 

I. Historical — ^The Gospels : Matthew, Mark, Luke, 

John ; The Acts 5 

II. Doctrinal — The Epistles : Romans, i and 2 Co- 
rinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, 
Colossians, i and 2 Thessalonians, i and 2 
Timothy, Titus, Philemon, Hebrews, James, 
I and 2 Peter, i, 2, and 3 John, Jude 21 

III. Apocalyptic — Revelation i 

Total 27 



A BODY OF LITERATURE 9 

The four Gospels portray, from different viewpoints, the 
life, teaching, and work of Jesus ; Acts records the founding 
of the Christian Church and its earliest history, centering 
the account chiefly around the experiences of Peter and Paul. 
The doctrinal books are in the form of letters, written by 
the leaders of the Christian movement to Churches and in- 
dividuals for the purpose of instructing them more fully in 
the faith and aiding them in various crises confronting the 
Christians during the early years of the Church's history. 
Revelation is in the form of a vision portraying the ultimate 
triumph of the kingdom of God. 

4. Different Kinds of Literature in the Old Testament, 
The Bible contains sublime specimens of history, law, poetry, 
oratory, in fact, of almost every kind of literature known 
outside of the Bible. To the inquiry concerning the reason 
of these different kinds of literature the writer of the Epistle 
to the Hebrews suggests an answer in the words (1:1) 
"God having spoken ... in divers manners;" which 
means that in His attempt to reach the human heart and 
conscience God used different methods and means. For ex- 
ample, God may reveal Himself in the events of history, or 
He may make His appeal through the object lessons of the 
ritual and ceremonial; He may use as mediators especially 
well qualified individuals, to whom He can make Himself 
known, or He may dispense with the external means and 
influence more directly the human soul. These are some of 
the means by which God makes Himself known to-day, and 
these are some of the means by which God made Himself 
known during the period covered by the Biblical records. It 
is self-evident that when attempts are made to record or 
interpret these various manifestations of God different kinds 
of literature must be used, in order to portray most vividly 
the truth or truths expressed by God. The several kinds 
of literature, therefore, are the natural outgrowth of the 
manifold modes of divine revelation. In the Old Testa- 
ment five kinds of literature may be distinguished: the Pro- 



lo THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

phetic, the Wisdom, the Devotional, the Legal or Priestly, 
and the Historical. In their production four classes of re- 
ligious workers were active: the Prophets, the Wise Men, 
the Priests (compare Jer. i8: i8), and the Psalmists. 

a. The Prophetic Literature of the Old Testament. The 
Prophetic Literature owes its origin to prophetic activity. 
The prophets towered above their contemporaries through 
purity of character, strength of intellect, sincerity of purpose, 
intimacy of communion with God, and special illumination by 
the Divine Spirit. As a result of these qualifications they 
were able to see facts and understand truths hidden from 
the eyes and minds of those who did not live in the same 
intimate fellowship with Jehovah. Their high conceptions of 
the character of God enabled them to appreciate the divine 
ideals of righteousness, and they sought with flaming en- 
thusiasm to impress the truths burning in their hearts upon 
their less enlightened contemporaries. In carrying out this 
purpose they became statesmen, social reformers, and re- 
ligious and ethical teachers. No records have been preserved 
of the utterances of the earliest prophets; but when, with the 
general advance in culture, reading and writing became more 
common, the prophets, anxious to reach a wider circle and 
to preserve their messages for more willing ears, put their 
messages into writing; and to this new departure we owe 
the sublime specimens of prophetic literature in the Old 
Testament. 

h. The Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament. In his 
direct appeal to heart and conscience the ancient prophet re- 
sembles the modern preacher. Like the prophet and the 
preacher, the Wise Man sought to make the Divine will 
known to others, but in his method he resembles rather the 
modern religious teacher. His ultimate aim was to influence 
conduct and life, but instead of appealing directly to the con- 
science, he addressed himself primarily to the mind through 
counsel and argument, hoping that his appeal to the com- 
mon sense of the listener would make an impression, the 



A BODY OF LITERATURE ii 

effects of which might be seen in transformed conduct. The 
prophet would have said to the lazy man, "Thus saith Je- 
hovah, Go to work, thou indolent man." Proverbs 24 : 30-34 
may serve as an illustration of the method of the Wise Men : 

"I went by the field of the slothful, 
And by the vineyard of the man void of understanding; 
And lo, it was all grown over with thorns, 
The face thereof was covered with nettles. 
And the stone wall thereof was broken down. 
Then I beheld, and considered well: 
I saw, and received instruction. 
Yet a little sleep, a little slumber, 
A little folding of the hands to sleep : 
So shall thy poverty come as a robber, 
And thy want as an armed man." 

Nothing escaped the observation of these men; and from 
beginning to end they emphasized the important truth that 
religion and the daily life are inseparable. From giving 
simple practical precepts the wise men rose to speculation, 
and the Books of Job and Ecclesiastes bear witness that the 
problems they attempted to solve were no mean problems. 

c. The Devotional Literature of the Old Testament. In 
a real sense the entire Old Testament is a book of devotion. 
It is the outgrowth of a spirit of intense devotion to Je- 
hovah, and it has helped in all ages to nurture the devo- 
tional spirit of its readers. Here, however, the term devo- 
tional is used in the narrower sense of those poetic compo- 
sitions which are primarily the expressions of the religious 
experience or emotions of the authors, caused and fostered 
by their intimate fellowship with Jehovah. The chief repre- 
sentative of this literature is the Book of Psalms, which is 
aptly described by Johannes Arndt in these words, "What 
the heart is in man that is the Psalter in the Bible." The 
Psalms contain, in the form of sacred lyrics, the outpour- 
ings of devout souls, prophets, priests, kings, wise men, and 
peasants, who came into the very presence of God, held 



12 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

communion with Him, and were privileged to hear the sweet 
sound of His voice. No other literary compositions lift us 
into such atmosphere of religious thought and emotion. And 
because these lyrics express personal experiences, they may 
be used even to-day to express the various emotions of joy, 
sorrow, hope, fear, anticipation, and others, of persons who 
live on even a higher plane than did the original authors. 

d. The Legal Literature of the Old Testament. The Le- 
gal Literature of the Old Testament differs from the other 
kinds in that it does not form separate books, but is em- 
bodied in other writings, principally in the books of Exodus, 
Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. All the representa- 
tives of Jehovah — prophets, priests, wise men, and even 
psalmists — were thought competent to make known the Law 
of Jehovah, but the Old Testament makes it clear that at 
a comparatively early period the giving of the law came 
to be looked upon as the special duty of the priests. These 
priests constituted a very important class of religious workers 
among the ancient Hebrews. During the greater part of the 
national life of Israel their chief functions were the care of 
the sanctuary and the performance of the ceremonial rites, 
but alongside of that they continued to administer the Law 
of Jehovah, consisting not only of ceremonial regulations, 
but also of moral and judicial precepts and directions. For 
centuries these laws may have been transmitted by word of 
mouth, or were only partially committed to writing, but when 
circumstances made it desirable to codify them and put them 
in writing, the priests would be called upon to take this 
advance step. Thus, while it is quite probable that other 
representatives of Jehovah helped to formulate laws, the legal 
literature embodied in the Old Testament reached its final 
form under priestly influence. 

e. The Historical Literature of the Old Testament. The 
historical literature of the Old Testament furnishes an inter- 
pretation of the movements of God in the events of history. 



A BODY OF LITERATURE 



13 



It owes its origin in part to prophetic, in part to priestly, 
activity. The prophet was an ambassador of Jehovah, ap- 
pointed to make known the Divine will concerning the past, 
the present, and the future. Of the present he spoke as a 
preacher; when his message concerned the future, it took 
the form of prediction. But the case might arise that the 
people failed to understand the significance of events in their 
own history, and thus failed to appreciate the lessons which 
the events were intended to teach. If the lessons were not 
to be lost, some one must serve as an interpreter; and who 
would be better qualified than the prophet to furnish the 
right interpretation? This demand made of him, in a sense, 
an historian; not for the purpose of merely recording events, 
but of interpreting them at the same time; and these pro- 
phetic interpretations are embodied in the historical litera- 
ture. But not all Old Testament history comes from the 
prophets. As already indicated, the legal and ceremonial 
literature is due to priestly activity. Now, in connection 
with the recording of the laws, customs, institutions, and 
ceremonial requirements, the origin of these laws and cus- 
toms became a matter of interest and importance. This 
interest, and the demand for information arising from it, 
led the priests also to become historians; and to these 
priestly writers we are indebted for not a small part of 
sacred history. 

5. Various Kinds of New Testament Literature. Several 
distinct kinds of literature may be recognized in the New 
Testament. All its writings center around Jesus the Christ, 
and in one way or another seek to interpret the supreme 
revelation of God in and through Him. Jesus was an 
historical person; His life and activity were historical events. 
It is but natural, therefore, that the New Testament should 
contain historical writings, namely, the Gospels, whose pri- 
mary purpose is to record and interpret the life and activity 
of Jesus. The work of establishing the kingdom of God 
upon earth, begun by Jesus, was continued by His disciples, 



14 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

and assumed organized form in the formation of Churches. 
The progress of these events is recorded in another histor- 
ical book, entitled The Acts. 

Every new movement gives rise to problems and per- 
plexities. Christianity was no exception. Very soon per- 
plexing questions began to disturb the newly organized 
Churches. Individuals failed to grasp the true significance 
of the new teaching; corruption and schisms threatened to 
disrupt the believers. In these extremities the leaders in the 
new faith were appealed to for guidance and inspiration. 
Since they could not visit all the places where Christians 
sought their counsel, they sometimes sent their advice in the 
form of letters, which practice has given rise to the ex- 
tensive epistolary literature in the New Testament. The 
closing book. Revelation, is the only one of its kind in the 
New Testament Canon. It has its counterparts in the Old 
Testament in the Book of Daniel, and portions of the Books 
of Ezekiel and Zechariah. It belongs to what is commonly 
called apocalyptic literature, the latest form of prophetic 
writing. Revelation is the outgrowth of the early Christian 
persecutions, and its aim is to encourage the distressed Chris- 
tians by the assurance of the ultimate triumph of the king- 
dom of God. 

Lesson Outline: 

The Bible a collection of books. 

Contents of the Old Testament. 

Contents of the New Testament. 

Different kinds of Old Testament literature. 

Different kinds of New Testament literature. 



Bibliography : 

Kirkpatrick, "The Divine Library of the Old Testament." 
Kent, "The Origin and Permanent Valtie of the Old Testa- 
ment." 



A BODY OF LITERATURE 15 

Topics for Special Study: 

1. Wisdom literature in the Old Testament in other than dis- 

tinctively Wisdom Books. 

2. The earliest psalms, or songs, of the Old Testament. 

3. The forms of literature in the Old Testament in detail. 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. What are the groups of Old Testament books? 

2. Discuss the various functions of the prophet. 

3. In what various ways has God made Himself known to 

man? 

4. The kinds of literature in the Old Testament, with ex- 

amples. 



CHAPTER II 

THE BIBLE— RECORDS OF DIVINE 
REVELATION 

1. The New Testament Estimate of the Bible, From the 
very beginning until now the Christian Church has looked 
upon the Bible as one of the most useful means to promote 
intelligent and vital piety, to intensify spiritual life and ex- 
perience, to instruct in Christian activity and service. This 
conviction, as far as the Old Testament is concerned, finds 
expression in unambiguous language in 2 Tim. 3: 15-17: "The 
sacred writings are able to make wise unto salvation through 
faith which is in Christ Jesus. Every Scripture inspired 
of God is also profitable for teaching, for reproof, for cor- 
rection, for instruction which is in righteousness, that the 
man of God may be complete, furnished completely unto 
every good work." What is said here of the Old Testament 
is equally true of the Scriptures of the New Testament. In 
the words of Cyprian, one of the early Church fathers, "The 
more closely one scrutinizes the sacred Scriptures of both 
Testaments, the greater increase in faith and inward devo- 
tion will he derive therefrom." Since these words were 
spoken, thousands of the most eminent men and women in 
all conditions of life and society have testified to the ines- 
timable value of the Bible as a means of grace to the in- 
dividual, and an essential factor in all advancement of true 
civilization. 

What gives to the Bible this unique power? The answer 
to this inquiry is implied in the above quoted words of the 

16 



RECORDS OF DIVINE REVELATION 17 

apostle, "Every scripture inspired of God." The presence 
of divine inspiration is the secret of the Bible's power. 
That such a divine element was present in the Old Tes- 
tament was recognized by Jesus and all New Testament 
writers. And surely it is a significant fact that in the first 
outburst of Christian enthusiasm, and under the living im- 
pression of the unique personality of the Master, no doubt 
arose concerning the inspiration and permanent value of the 
Old Testament. In 2 Peter i : 21 the unqualified assertion is 
made that "no prophecy ever came by the will of man, but 
men spake from God as they were moved by the Holy Ghost." 
And the first great apologist of Christianity opens the Epistle 
to the Hebrews with these significant words, "God having 
of old time spoken unto the fathers in the prophets by divers 
portions, and in divers manners hath in the end of these days 
spoken unto us in a Son." If such assertion can be made 
of the Old Testament, how much more of the New, with 
its superior spiritual and ethical teaching! 

To avoid misunderstanding it may be well to bear in 
mind in the very beginning what the New Testament says 
or implies concerning the purpose and aim of Biblical teach- 
ing. For it is of the greatest importance to remember that 
we can learn what the Bible is only from what the Bible 
itself says. Now, everywhere in the New Testament it is 
stated or clearly implied that the purpose of Scripture is to 
point to the Christ, to bring man into harmony with God, to 
make him morally and spiritually perfect, and to furnish 
him "unto every good work." Not one passage in the whole 
Bible warrants the belief that the Biblical writers ever in- 
tended to teach physical science, or history, or philosophy, 
or psychology. Therefore we may expect that where the 
Biblical writers touch upon questions of science or history 
they develop them only to the extent that they serve the 
higher religious or ethical purpose. For this, absolute scien- 
tific or historical accuracy in every detail is by no means 
necessary. 



i8 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

2. Truths Suggested in Hebrews 1:1, 2. The words 

quoted from the Epistle to the Hebrews suggest or imply 
five great truths which have an important bearing upon the 
present inquiry: (i) God spoke. (2) God spoke through 
human agents. (3) God spoke in divers portions. (4) God 
spoke in divers manners. (5) The speaking during the Old 
Testament dispensation — to it refers the expression "of old 
time" — was incomplete; it had to be supplemented and per- 
fected by a revelation in and through a Son. In order to 
appreciate properly the nature and purpose of the Scriptures, 
all these truths must be borne in mind. It is especially im- 
portant to remember that God used human agents in the 
attempt to make Himself known to men, and these agents 
left the marks of their human limitations in the records. 
But it is equally essential to remember that it is God who 
spoke; in other words, that there is a divine element in the 
Bible. 

3. Evidences of the Presence of a Divine Element. Noth- 
ing can be gained by denying the presence of a human ele- 
ment in the Bible. At the same time it should not be over- 
estimated, or blind the eyes to the other truth expressed by 
the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews, that there is also 
a divine element in the writings of the Bible. As far as 
the Old Testament is concerned this was recognized by Jesus 
and all the New Testament writers. Their testimony should 
carry great weight with Christians. But without appealing 
to such authority, every unbiased reader may convince him- 
self of the nature and character of the book. It is ready for 
examination and invites the closest scrutiny on the part of 
every student. 

Former generations based the principal arguments in favor 
of the belief in a divine element in the Bible upon the pres- 
ence of miracles in its records, and the fulfillment of 
prophecy. The present generation, while still using these 
arguments, places greater stress upon evidences which are 
simpler and more easily apprehended. Three of the most 



RECORDS OF DIVINE REVELATION 19 

important may be considered here: (i) The essential unity 
of the book; (2) the response of the human heart and con- 
science to its message, and the effects it produces in the 
lives of those who yield themselves to its teaching; (3) the 
uniqueness of the Bible as seen when it is compared with 
other sacred literatures of antiquity. 

a. The Essential Unity of the Bible, In the first place, 
then, attention may be called to the essential unity of the 
Bible. There are in the Old World great and magnificent 
cathedrals, some of which have been centuries in building, 
yet in all of them is complete unity and harmony. How 
can this be explained? Although generation after genera- 
tion multitudes of workmen have labored on the enterprise, 
back of all the efforts was one single plan, evolved in the 
mind of one man, and this mind controlled all the succeed- 
ing generations of workmen. The result is unity and har- 
mony. The Bible has been likened to a magnificent cathe- 
dral. The phenomenon to which reference has just been 
made in connection with ancient cathedrals may be seen in 
it. It contains sixty-six books — ^by how many authors no 
one knows — scattered over a period of more than a thou- 
sand years, written, at least many of them, independent of 
one another, in places hundreds of miles apart; yet one 
thought running throughout them all, the gradual unfolding 
of God's plan of redemption for the human race. There must 
be an explanation for this unity; and I believe that it is to 
be found in the one spirit which dwelt in and somehow in- 
fluenced the men who made contributions to the Book. 

h. The Response to the Human Heart and Conscience to 
the Bible Message. The proof of the presence of a divine 
element in the Bible which is derived from the essential unity 
of the Book is confirmed by the response of the human heart 
and conscience to its message, and the effects which it pro- 
duces in the lives of those who yield themselves to its teach- 
ing. Never has there been a book that has been able to "find'* 



20 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

men as the Bible has done generation after generation, among 
peoples in all stations of society, in all lands and climes. The 
bearing of this remarkable fact upon the question of the di- 
vine inspiration of the Bible is stated very aptly by Coleridge 
in his Letters on the Inspiration of the Scriptures: "Need 
I say that I have found everywhere more or less copious 
sources of truth, and power, and purifying impulses; that I 
have found words for my inmost thoughts, songs for my joy, 
utterances for my hidden griefs, and pleadings for my shame 
and feebleness? In short, whatever 'finds' me hears witness 
for itself that it has proceeded from a Holy Spirit, even 
from the same Spirit which, remaining it itself, yet regen- 
erateth all other powers, and in all ages entering into holy 
souls maketh them friends of God and prophets/' 

The test "By their fruits ye shall know them" leads to 
the same result. No other book has produced such far-reach- 
ing results. Sinful and sorrowing men have come to the 
Bible and have found the way of forgiveness and peace. 
They have been transformed from old evil lives of wicked- 
ness and vice to new and beautiful lives of righteousness. 
But the fruits are seen not only in the lives of individuals, 
but of entire nations. The nations enjoying the highest and 
most advanced civilization are the nations with an open Bible. 
Froude, the historian, declares, "All that we have in the 
way of civilization in a sense which deserves the term is 
but a visible expression of the transforming influence of the 
gospel." So also Daniel Webster, "If we abide by the prin- 
ciples taught in the Bible, our country will go on prospering 
and to prosper; but if we and our posterity neglect its in- 
struction and authority, no man can tell how sudden a ca- 
tastrophe may overwhelm us and bury our glory in profound 
obscurity." True, there are dark spots on modern civiliza- 
tion even in Christian lands, but these could not continue to 
exist for a day were the Bible teaching applied consistently 
to all the details of individual, social, and national life. But 
a book which produces such divine results bears witness to 



RECORDS OF DIVINE REVELATION 21 

itself that it embodies truth which, in some real sense, pro- 
ceeded from God. As long as the Bible awakens this re- 
sponse and produces these effects, men will believe that it 
contains a divine element. And it will accomplish these 
things wherever and whenever men are willing to study it 
intelligently and devoutly, and to yield themselves to its 
teaching as it appeals to their own best selves. What the 
Bible calls for is not a defense, but earnest and devout 
study. 

c. The Uniqueness of the Bible, The value and signifi- 
cance of the facts mentioned can not easily be overestimated. 
But during the past century other proofs have become avail- 
able, as a result of the careful and painstaking study of the 
Bible by scholars in many lands and from various points of 
view. In the pursuit of this study four tests have been ap- 
plied to the Bible: the test of criticism, of archaeology, of 
comparative religion, and of science. As a result the origin 
and literary form of the Biblical books have come to be bet- 
ter understood, and while certain previously held ideas have 
had to be modified, the peculiar uniqueness of the Bible, when 
compared with other sacred literatures of antiquity, has been 
revealed as never before. This uniqueness consists princi- 
pally in the pure and lofty atmosphere which permeates the 
whole from beginning to end. One may read its stories of 
prehistoric times, its records of history both in the Old and 
the New Testament, its law, its poetry, its prophecy, or its 
doctrinal writings, and everywhere he will find an intensity 
and purity of religious tone and spirit which is absent from 
similar literatures of other nations and bears witness to the 
presence of God in a manner in which He can not be rec- 
ognized in other literatures. 

Lesson Outline: 

New Testament estimate of the Bible. 

The presence of a human element in the Bible. 

Evidences of a Divine element. 



22 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Bibliography : 

Sanday, "The Oracles of God." 
Dods, 'The Bible, Its Origin and Nature." 
Farrar, **The Bible, Its Meaning and Supremacy." 
Smyth, "How God Inspired the Bible." 

Topics for Special Study: 

i» The kind and degree of inspiration which the Scriptures 
claim for themselves. 

2. The New Testament estimate of the Old, in detail. 

3. The unique qualities of the Bible as compared with other 

sacred literatures of antiquity. 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. The explanation of the unique power of the Bible as a 

means of grace. 

2. The supreme purpose of sacrifice. 

3. Discuss the response of the human heart and conscience 

to the message of the Bible. 

4. The effect of the Bible upon the life of nations. 

5. Other evidences of divine quality in the Scriptures. 



CHAPTER III 
HOW WE GOT OUR BIBLE 

1. The Canon of Scripture. In referring to the two col- 
lections of Biblical books it is customary to speak of the Old 
Testament Canon and the New Testament Canon. The word 
Canon, which is derived from the Greek, means primarily a 
straight rod, a measuring rod. From this it derives the sec- 
ondary meaning, line, rule, and even law. The meaning list 
or catalogue marks a still later development. The name was 
applied to the books of the Bible first in the second half 
of the fourth century A. D., but the idea underlying the 
adoption of the term was recognized much earlier. It was 
believed that the books set apart into the Canon were given 
by inspiration, that in some way God spoke in and through 
them. The Canon of Scripture, therefore, may be defined 
as a collection of books given by inspiration of God, through 
which the Divine Spirit may appeal to the human heart and 
conscience. 

2. The Origin and Growth of the Old Testament Canon. 

The Old Testament Canon was formed among the Jews, 
from whom it was taken over by the early Christians. The 
exact steps by which the Jewish Canon grew into its final 
form it may not be possible to determine; but it is now 
quite generally admitted that the three-fold division of the 
Jewish Canon into the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings 
marks three stages in the growth of the Old Testament 
Canon. The available evidence, which is none too definite, 
would seem to indicate that the Law was accepted as canon- 

23 



24 



THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 



ical as early as 400 B. C. ; the Law, the Prophets, and at 
least some of the Writings, about 180 B. C. ; practically all 
the Old Testament books were accepted as canonical by 
the opening of the Christian era. The setting apart of 
these books was not an arbitrary act. The Spirit who in- 
spired the writer appealed to the reader through the writing, 
and if a writing thus appealed as sacred to a sufficient num- 
ber of people, it retained that position until official action 
could put its seal upon its sanctity. The final official decision 
was rendered at the Jewish Council at Jamnia, about 90 A. D. 
Questions of canonicity raised at a later time were settled 
by appeal to the action of this council. 

3. The Origin and Growth of the New Testament Canon. 
In the case of the Old Testament the action of the Council 
of Jamnia appears to have been accepted as binding by prac- 
tically the entire Jewish world. No such general action was 
taken with reference to the New Testament books until the 
sixteenth century of the Christian era. Local councils dealt 
with the question, but their decisions were not universally 
binding. A canon attributed to the Council of Laodicea 
(about 360 A. D.), representing the Eastern Church, con- 
tains all the New Testament books except Revelation. The 
Third Council of Carthage (397 A. D.), representing the 
Western Church, ordered that "besides the Canonical Scrip- 
tures nothing be read in the Church under the title of Divine 
Scriptures." The list of canonical books given contained all 
our New Testament books. Though the action of this coun- 
cil may not have been immediately accepted as binding by 
the whole Church, there can be no question that ultimately 
its decision came to be recognized as authoritative. The prin- 
ciple underlying the formation of the New Testament Canon 
is, as in the case of the Old Testament, the fact of inspira- 
tion. The actual process of formation is described by Adeney 
in these words : "Primarily the question was as to what 
books were read in the churches at public worship. Those 
so used became in course of time the Christian Scriptures. 



HOW WE GOT OUR BIBLE 25 

Then, having the value of Scripture gradually associated 
with them, they came to be employed as the basis of instruc- 
tion, and to be appealed to in disputed cases of doctrine or 
discipline." 

4. The Transmission of the Old Testament. The Old 
Testament books, with the exception of a few small portions 
(two words in Gen. 31:47; Jer. 10:11; Dan. 2:4 — 7:28; 
Ezra 4:8 — 6:18; 7:12-26), which are in Aramaic, were 
written in the Hebrew language. Whether any of the books 
were ever inscribed on tablets is uncertain, but from very 
early times to the invention of printing they were handed 
down in the form of manuscripts written on leather, parch- 
ment, papyrus, and later also on paper. Until about the 
fifth century A. D. the manuscripts contained only the con- 
sonants, but when Hebrew became more and more a dead 
language the Jewish scribes invented a system of vowels, 
which were introduced into the later manuscripts intended 
for popular use; the Synagogue rolls continuing without 
vowel points. The Hebrew manuscripts now known are 
few, and they are of comparatively late date. Leaving aside 
some whose dates are somewhat uncertain, the oldest He- 
brew manuscript of the prophets comes from 916 A. D. ; 
the oldest Hebrew manuscript of the whole Old Testament 
from loio A. D. The first portion of the Hebrew Old 
Testament to be printed was the Psalter, in 1477 A. D. ; the 
whole Old Testament was printed in 1488 A. D. 

5. The Transmission of the New Testament. The New 
Testament books were written in Greek, though some por- 
tions of the Gospels may have been translated from Ara- 
maic or Hebrew sources. Like the Old Testament writ- 
ings, they were handed down for centuries in the form of 
manuscripts. The autographs have all perished, and the vast 
majority of existing manuscripts are of a comparatively mod- 
ern date. The most important of the ancient manuscripts 
now known are the Codex Vaticanus, dating from the fourth 
century, which is preserved in the Vatican Library in Rome; 



26 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

the Codex Sinaiticus, which was discovered in the Convent 
of St. Catherine at the foot of Mount Sinai, also of the 
fourth century, now in the Imperial Library in St. Peters- 
burg. A third manuscript is the Codex Alexandrinus, of 
the fifth century, which is preserved in the British Museum. 
In addition to these there are about one hundred other an- 
cient manuscripts. The first New Testament in Greek was 
given to the world in printed form in 1516, under the di- 
rection of the Dutch scholar, Erasmus. Since then numer- 
ous other editions of the Greek New Testament have been 
prepared until we are in possession of a Greek text which 
in all essentials may be considered an accurate reproduction 
of the autographs. 

6. Early Translations of the Bible. Translations of the 
Old Testament were made even before the opening of the 
Christian era. This was due to two facts. In the first 
place, the Jews were scattered all over the Eastern world, 
and began to adopt the languages of the people among whom 
they lived. In the second place, even in Palestine the Ara- 
maic language displaced the Hebrew. At a later time, when 
Christianity, with its emphasis on the Old Testament, spread 
to different nations, the demand for translations became even 
more urgent. As the Christians multiplied it became neces- 
sary to translate also the New Testament. The most im- 
portant early translations of the Bible are: (i) The Septua- 
gint, the translation of the Old Testament into Greek, be- 
gun about 250 B. C. and completed before the opening of 
the Christian era. (2) The Targums; that is, translations 
of the Old Testament into Aramaic for the use of the Jews 
in Palestine. The earliest layers of the Targums antedate 
the birth of Christ, but in their completed form they are post- 
Christian. (3) The Peshitto, a translation into Syriac, made 
for the most part in the second century A. D. for the use 
of the Syrian Christians. (4) The Vulgate, a Latin trans- 
lation made by Jerome in 390-405 to take the place of the 
earlier Latin translation made from the Septuagint probably 



HOW WE GOT OUR BIBLE 27 

in the second century A. D. The last two translations in- 
clude also the New Testament. 

a. Early Anglo-Saxon and English Translations. When 
Augustine, the Roman-Catholic monk, went as a missionary 
to England in 596, the pope sent him a Bible, the Psalter, 
the Gospels, and several other books of a religious character. 
The Bible was the Vulgate, and this Latin text was used in 
the first efforts to produce the Anglo-Saxon translations, 
which are the ancestors of our modern English Bible. Of 
these early attempts the following may be mentioned: The 
translation of Caedmon, a monk of Whitby, in Northumbria 
(died in 680). His work is less a translation than a metrical 
paraphrase of the Book of Genesis and of several historical 
portions of the Old and New Testaments. About the close 
of the seventh century Guthlac of Croyland prepared an in- 
terlinear translation of the Psalms ; a little later Aldhelm, 
Bishop of Sherborne, translated the Psalms, the first fifty in 
prose, the rest in poetical form. Bede, the ecclesiastical his- 
torian (674-735), is credited with a translation of the entire 
Bible, but nothing is known of such work. More ceredit may 
be given to the tradition that he translated the Gospel of 
John. King Alfred (died in 901) is said to have translated 
some portions. Passing over several others, mention may 
be made of the last and, at the same time, the most exten- 
sive Anglo-Saxon translation, which is ascribed to Aelfric, 
Archbishop of Canterbury, about 990 A. D. All these efforts 
were crude and fragmentary. The early authors translated 
only small portions of the Bible; but we find in the later 
attempts a degree of fidelity to the original and a literary 
finish, which entitle them to great respect. 

With the advent of William the Conqueror (1071), Eng- 
land was wholly transformed. The government was con- 
centrated in one person, new elements of social life were 
introduced, commerce was wonderfully developed, and the 
intellectual life greatly quickened. Not the least of the 
transformations was that of the language. The change in 



28 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

language made it necessary to prepare a new translation of 
the Scriptures. For more than a century there existed great 
political confusion, which checked literary development; but 
early in the thirteenth century we find a metrical paraphrase 
of those parts of the Gospels and Acts which were read in 
the church services. The next century and a half saw several 
other attempts at partial translations, but finally the time 
arrived when the people of England demanded the whole 
Bible in a more careful translation. In response to this de- 
mand came the great work of John Wycliffe, which forms 
one of the most conspicuous landmarks in the history of the 
English Bible. The New Testament appeared first, about 
1380; in 1382, or soon afterward, certainly before the death 
of Wycliffe in 1384, the entire Bible was completed in its 
English dress. Like its forerunners, this translation was 
made from the Latin. Of the precise share of Wycliffe in 
the production of the translation it is not possible to speak 
with absolute certainty. That he did much of the work him- 
self, and was the inspiration of the whole movement, can 
not be doubted. 

b. The Translations of the Period of the Reformation. 
The Reformation gave new life to the movement toward 
popularizing the Bible. The reformers believed that the best 
method of overthrowing the power of the monasteries and 
of the Roman Church was to enable the common people to 
read the Bible for themselves and learn how much of the 
current teaching of priests and friars was without Scriptural 
basis. Hence it came to pass that the question of Bible trans- 
lations into the vernacular of the people occupied a prominent 
place in the struggles of the Reformation. In Germany the 
popular translation was made once for all by Luther, but in 
England, where parties were more divided, the ultimate ac- 
complishment required many years and the co-operation of 
many men. 

The true father of the English Bible is Tyndale, a Fran- 
ciscan priest While studying at Cambridge he came in con- 



HOW WE GOT OUR BIBLE 



29 



tact with the New Testament of Erasmus. In a quiet way 
he began to expound the Scriptures, and his experience soon 
convinced him that nothing could be accomplished in the way 
of the spiritual elevation of the people unless the Bible could 
be laid before them in their mother tongue. After many hard- 
ships and perils he finally succeeded in publishing, at Worms, 
in Germany, a translation of the New Testament in 1525. 
In the following years he translated various portions of the 
Old Testament, but when he was strangled and burned at 
the stake in 1536 the larger enterprise was still incomplete. 
Near the time of Tyndale's death the obstacles to printing the 
Bible in England were removed, and now an era of great 
activity in Bible translations opened. Between 1535 and 
1606 no less than six different translations were issued, each 
having its characteristic value and marking an advance over 
its predecessors. 

Of these the translation of Myles Coverdale, published 
in 153s, stands first. To him belongs the honor of issuing 
the first complete printed English Bible. The Wycliffe Bible 
contained a translation of the entire Bible, but it was not 
printed. Tyndale issued in printed form the New Testament 
and parts of the Old, but did not live to see the work com- 
pleted. The work of Coverdale does not profess to be made 
from the original languages; it is based rather upon the 
Vulgate, and the translations of Luther and Tyndale. Two 
years later, in 1537, appeared a new translation, which goes 
under the name of Thomas Matthew, but the real author was 
in all probability John Rogers, an intimate friend of Tyndale, 
to whom the latter had entrusted his papers at the time of 
his arrest. In 1539 Richard Taverner edited a Bible consist- 
ing largely of a revision of that of Matthew, omitting most 
of his notes and introducing much new introductory ma- 
terial. Taverner was one of the great Greek scholars of the 
age, and made good use of his knowledge in the translation 
of the New Testament; in the Old Testament he leans 
strongly on the Vulgate. Neither the Church nor the State 



30 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

could become reconciled to the existing translations, although 
they had at last sanctioned their publication. A new trans- 
lation was therefore prepared under their own supervision 
and published in 1539, Thomas Cromwell being the leading 
spirit in the movement. Because of the size of its pages it 
is known as the "Great Bible," or also "Cranmer's Bible," 
because Archbishop Cranmer prepared an elaborate prologue 
for the second edition, which appeared in 1540. During the 
later years of the reign of Henry VIIL, and especially under 
Queen Mary, a strong reaction toward Catholicism set in, 
the reading of the Bible was forbidden, and the attempt was 
made to destroy all existing copies. Learned men of Prot- 
estant tendencies were compelled to flee from England. Of 
these religious exiles a company of several hundred gathered 
at Geneva, in Switzerland. Among the most prominent men 
of the English colony were William Whittingham and Myles 
Coverdale. They determined to prepare an English Bible of 
moderate size and cost, more accurate in its renderings, and 
accompanied with a brief commentary and such explanatory 
statements as were needed for a clear understanding of the 
text. The New Testament appeared in 1557, the entire Bible 
in 1560. This Bible, called the Geneva Bible, at once obtained 
a very wide circulation. From 1560 to 1616 not a year passed 
without one or more new editions. 

The circulation of the English Bible was now confined 
to the two editions known as the Great Bible and the 
Geneva Bible. Neither proved entirely satisfactory; the Ge- 
neva Bible was too Calvinistic and anti-episcopal; the Great 
Bible showed many defects in translation. This led to the 
preparation of a new translation, called the "Bishops* Bible," 
because three-fourths of the translators were bishops. The 
first edition appeared in 1568. Strenuous efforts were made 
to have it take the place of all earlier translations, but while 
it became the official Bible of the Church, the Geneva Bible 
remained the Bible of the home. 

Toward the close of the sixteenth century the zeal of the 



HOW WE GOT OUR BIBLE 31 

Protestant Churches drove the Roman Church into competi- 
tion with them in the production of Bible translations. The 
preparation of an English translation naturally fell to the 
scholars of the English seminary which had lately been es- 
tablished in France. The original home of the seminary was 
at Douay, but in 1578 it was transferred for a time to Rheims, 
as a result of political disturbances in Flanders. Here the 
New Testament was published in 1582. The Old Testament 
did not appear until 1609, when the seminary had returned 
to Douay. As a result the completed Bible goes by the 
name of the "Rheims and Douay" Bible. The most impor- 
tant point to be observed about this Roman-Catholic trans- 
lation is that it was not made from the original Hebrew 
and Greek, but from the Latin Vulgate. The circulation of 
the Rheims and Douay version was not large; the New Tes- 
tament was reprinted three times between 1582 and 1750, the 
Old Testament only once. 

c. The Authorized Version, The Bishops* Bible did not 
meet with popular favor, and soon the demand for a new 
translation was heard. When James I became king of Eng- 
land in 1603 he found the country in great turmoil, the Puri- 
tans and the Church of England parties being engaged in a 
bitter contest for supremacy. At a conference held in Jan- 
uary, 1604, for the purpose of considering the grievances, the 
subject of a new Bible translation was raised, and all agreed 
that such a work should be undertaken. The king chose 
fifty-four translators, who devoted seven years to the task, 
and in 161 1 the new translation was published. It can not 
be shown that the new translation ever had any authority 
given to it, although on the title-page appears the statement 
*' appointed to be read in churches." It had to make its way 
on its own merits, and for a generation had a formidable 
rival in the Geneva Bible, which continued to be the popular 
favorite; but in the end its sterling value gave it the su- 
premacy, which it has retained ever since. According to the 
instruction given to the translators, they were to follow the 



32 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Bishops' Bible, except where the Hebrew and Greek de- 
manded a change; in reality they adhered far more closely 
to the Geneva Bible, which aroused considerable opposition 
on the part of the Catholics and the High Church party of 
the Church of England. 

d. The "English" Revised Version. The increase in 
knowledge of the original Greek and Hebrew texts was 
chiefly responsible for the demand for a revision of the so- 
called Authorized Version, after it had held its ground for 
more than two centuries. Partial translations were published 
by individual scholars, and finally in 1870 decisive steps were 
taken by the convocation of the Province of Canterbury to 
secure an authoritative revision of the whole English Bible 
in the light of the fullest modern knowledge and the best 
Biblical scholarship. In May, 1870, the broad principles of 
the Revision were laid down, and a committee of sixteen 
was appointed to execute the work, with power to add to 
its numbers. The committee divided itself into an Old Tes- 
tament Company and a New Testament Company; then rep- 
resentative scholars of all Protestant denominations were in- 
vited to co-operate, until the membership of each company 
reached twenty-seven. However, deaths, resignations, and 
new appointments caused the exact number to vary from 
time to time. When the work had barely begun, an invita- 
tion was sent to the Churches in America requesting their 
co-operation. In response to this request two American com- 
panies were formed, to whom all the results of the English 
companies were communicated. The American revisers could 
make suggestions, but the final decision rested with the Eng- 
lish companies. The suggestions not adopted were published 
in an appendix. The Prevised Version represents, conse- 
quently, the deliberate opinions of a majority of the best 
Biblical scholars of all English-speaking Protestant Churches 
in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. On the twenty- 
second of June, 1870, the English New Testament Company 
held its first meeting; the Old Testament Company began 



HOW WE GOT OUR BIBLE 33 

its labors eight days later. On the eleventh of November, 
1880, the New Testament revisers set their signatures to the 
Preface of their Version, which issued from the press in 
May, 1881. The Old Testament Preface is dated July 10, 
1884, and the entire Bible was published in May, 1885. 

e. The American Revised Version. As already stated, 
the preferences of the American companies not adopted by 
the English revisers were to be published in an appendix with 
every copy of the Revised Version. In return for this con- 
sideration the American companies pledged themselves for a 
term of fourteen years — that is, until 1899 — not to give sanc- 
tion to the publication of any edition of the Revised Version 
other than those issued by the University Presses of England. 
The American Revision companies, after the publication of 
the Revised Version in 1885, resolved to continue their or- 
ganization, thinking that eventually an American recension 
of the Revised Version might be called for. That such would 
be the case became a growing conviction. In 1898, a short 
time before the agreement regarding the publication of a Re- 
vised Version by the American companies came to an end, the 
University Presses of England issued a so-called "American 
Revised Version," which transferred the American prefer- 
ences from the Appendix to the text itself. But the American 
revisers had been at work all these years in an attempt to 
improve the entire Revised Version, and the English "Ameri- 
can Revised Version" did not meet their unqualified approval. 
Hence in 1901 they published the "Standard Edition of the 
American Revised Version," which in point of accuracy is 
far superior to the Revised Version of 1885. 



Lesson Outline: 



The Canon of Scripture — 

Old Testament Canon ; 

New Testament Canon. 
Transmission of the Bible — 

Of the Old Testament; 

Of the New Testament. 
Translations of the Bible. 



34 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Bibliography : 

Ryle, ''The Canon of the Old Testament." 
Price, **The Ancestry of our English Bible." 
Kenyon, "Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts." 
Smyth, *'How We Got Our Bible." 

Topics for Special Study: 

1. The formation of the New Testament canon. 

2. Existing Greek manuscripts of the New Testament. 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. What is the meaning of the term "canon?" 

2. How was the Old Testament canon formed? The New 

Testament ? 

3. The different forms through which the Bible has passed in 

reaching its present form. 

4. The reasons for the many translations of the Bible. 

5. Discuss the reasons for, and the methods used in, the 

making of the Revised Version. 



CHAPTER IV 

WHY STUDY THE BIBLE 

1. The Testimony of the Ages. This is a practical age. 
Men look at everything from an intensely practical stand- 
point. Hence, when the study of the Bible is urged upon 
them, they naturally inquire. Is is worth while? To this 
inquiry history answers a most emphatic Yes ! Surely the 
words of Dean Farrar are none too strong: "How absurd 
it must be to scoff at a book which, through all the long 
centuries, thousands of great men have reverenced in pro- 
portion to their greatness ; a book for which, in age after age, 
warriors have fought, philosophers labored, and martyrs bled ! 
. . . All that is best and greatest in the literature of two 
thousand years has been rooted in it. It has inspired the 
career of all the best of men who 'raised strong arms to 
bring heaven a little nearer to our earth.' St. Vincent de 
Paul learned from its pages his tenderness for the poor; and 
John Howard his love for the suffering; and William Wil- 
berforce his compassion for the slaves ; and Lord Shaftesbury 
the dedication of his life to the amelioration of the lot of 
his countrymen. Has there been one of our foremost states- 
men or our best philanthropists who has not confessed the 
force of its inspiration? ... It inspired the pictures of 
Fra. Angelico and Raphael, the music of Handel and Men- 
delssohn. It kindled the intrepid genius of Luther, the bright 
imagination of Bunyan, the burning zeal of Whitefield. The 
hundred best books, the hundred best pictures, the hundred 
greatest strains of music are all in it and all derived from it.'' 

35 



36 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Surely a book that has accomplished such things is worthy 
of the closest study. Or, is there reason to believe that it 
has lost any of its former power? No close observer will 
admit this. Goethe, the poet and thinker, the genius, the man 
of talents and scientific insight, in many respects a type of 
modern culture, was very fond of Bible reading; and this 
is what he said, among other things, concerning it: "Let 
culture and science go on advancing, and the mind progress 
as it may, it will never go beyond the elevation and moral 
culture of Christianity as it glistens and shines forth in the 
Gospels." And again, "The greater the intellectual progress 
of the ages, the more fully possible will it also become to 
employ the Bible both as the foundation and as the instru- 
ment of education^-of that education by which not pedants 
but truly wise men are formed.'' 

a. Literary Excellence of the Bible. Well has it been 
said that the Bible "is a literature which no age or nation 
can equal or supersede, though every library in the world 
had remained unravaged and every teacher's truest words 
had been written down." A great multitude of literary men 
have given expression to their high estimate of the literary 
excellence of the Bible; and the more we know of other 
literatures of antiquity, the more evident it becomes that even 
from the literary viewpoint the Bible is far superior to any 
other literary remains of ancient civilizations. It contains 
sublime specimens of history, law, poetry, oratory, and, in- 
deed, of practically every kind of literary composition found 
outside of the Bible. Aside from all religious considerations, 
then — if we consider the study of ancient literatures an es- 
sential part of a liberal education, by what process of reason- 
ing can we justify the exclusion of this "Book of Books" 
from our study? 

In a small volume in the Modern Reader's Bible, entitled 
"Biblical Masterpieces," Professor Moulton has collected the 
best specimens of Biblical literature, but other portions are 
not without literary beauty and power. Indeed, as the same 



WHY STUDY THE BIBLE 37 

author suggests, the Biblical classics are by no means in- 
ferior to the Hellenic. "If the inimitable freshness of life is 
preserved in Homer, it is not less preserved in the epic stories 
of the Old Testament (found especially in the Book of Gen- 
esis) ; while the still more intangible simplicity of the idyl is 
found perfect in Ruth and Tobit; the orations of Deuter- 
onomy are as noble models as the orations of Cicero. Read 
by the side of the poetry of the Psalms, the lyrics of Pindar 
seem almost provincial. The imaginative poetry of the Greeks 
is perfect in its own sphere; but by the Hebrew prophets as 
bold an imagination is carried into the mysteries of the spir- 
itual world. If the philosophy of Plato and his successors 
has a special interest as the starting point for a progression 
of thought still going on as modern science, yet the field of 
Biblical wisdom offers an attraction of a different kind, in 
a progression of thought which has run its full round and 
has reached a position of rest. Most interesting is it to fol- 
low the sagacity of the classic historians as they analyze a 
dead past; but the historic writings of the New Testament 
keep us in touch with the coming into being of thoughts and 
institutions which are with us yet in their full vigor. And 
in the inner circle of the world's masterpieces, in which all 
kinds of literary influences meet, the Bible has placed Job, 
the Isaiahan Rhapsody (especially chapters i, 5, 40 — 53, 60 — 
62), the Apocalypse, unsurpassed and unsurpassable.'* 

b. Bible Study and a Knowledge of Literature and His- 
tory, Charles Dudley Warner points out the importance of 
a knowledge of the Bible for a proper understanding of the 
world's best literature in these striking words: 'Wholly 
apart from its religious or from its ethical value, the Bible 
is the one book that no intelligent person who wishes to 
come into contact with the world of thought and to share 
the ideas of the great minds of the Christian era can af- 
ford to be ignorant of. All modern literature and all art 
are permeated with it. There is scarcely a great work in 
the language that can be fully understood and enjoyed with- 



38 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

out this knowledge, so full is it of allusions and illustrations 
from the Bible. This is true of fiction, of poetry, of economic 
and philosophic works, and also of the scientific and even 
agnostic treatises. It is not at all a question of religion, or 
theology, or of dogma; it is a question of general intelli- 
gence. A boy or girl at college in the presence of the works 
set for either to master, without a fair knowledge of the 
Bible is an ignoramus and is disadvantaged accordingly. It 
is in itself almost a liberal education, as many great masters 
in literature have testified. It has so entered into law, lit- 
erature, thought, the whole modern life of the Christian 
world, that ignorance of it is a most serious disadvantage to 
the student." 

And who can understand the history of England, Ger- 
many, the United States, and other civilized nations without 
a knowledge of the Scriptures? They have been the guide, 
the inspiration, the ennoblement, the statesman's manual of 
the greatest nations in the world. Even some of the dark 
blots in the history of these nations are to be traced to the 
Bible, though in these cases the Bible misinterpreted or mis- 
applied. 

c. The Unique Religious Value of the Bible. Whatever 
the importance of Bible study along the lines suggested in 
the preceding paragraphs, the permanent religious and ethical 
value of its teaching supplies the chief reason of its study. 
It would be easy to adduce thousands of testimonials to sup- 
port the statement of the apostle that "the Scriptures are able 
to make wise unto salvation through faith which is in Christ 
Jesus. Every Scripture inspired of God is also profitable for 
teaching, for reproof, for correction, for instruction which 
is in righteousness, that the man of God may be complete, fur- 
nished completely unto every good work." These words call 
attention to three stages in the Christian life: the exercise of 
a saving faith in Jesus ; the development of a strong and noble 
character ; and the performance of good works ; in other 
words, faith, knowledge, service. According to the writer, 



WHY STUDY THE BIBLE 39 

the Bible may be of the greatest value in each one of these 
stages, and the experience of the centuries has confirmed the 
claim. And what may be said of the Bible as a source of 
consolation! How many in the hour of sorrow, grief, and 
bereavement have turned to the Scriptures and there found 
hope and consolation (Rom. 15:4) ! No wonder that Renan 
calls the Bible "the great book of consolation for humanity!" 
The Bible possesses such unique religious value for several 
reasons : In the first place, it presents not the only, but surely 
the most comprehensive, vision of God that may be found 
anywhere. God, a spirit, personal, with a clearly defined 
moral character, in His fatherly mercy condescending to en- 
ter into covenant relations with men, loving man and desir- 
ing to be loved by him. His anger aroused by sin, but gracious 
toward the repenting sinner. Again, the Bible is of perma- 
nent religious value because of its keen insight into human 
nature. It has been called the "family album of the Holy 
God;" we might liken it rather to a picture gallery. What 
a variety! Everywhere we see them flesh and blood! Why 
is it they impress us so? Is it not because the pictures are 
so true to human nature that, in spite of the difference in 
time, place, and circumstances, they may serve even us as 
mirrors? In studying these character sketches we may learn 
both how men with a sublime vision of God live and should 
live, and how those without such a vision live and should not 
live. Moreover, the Bible teaches, as no other book can, how 
this vision of God may be ours and its powers be felt in our 
lives. What an inspiration to trace the workings of God 
throughout the centuries for the purpose of making Himself 
known, and to draw all men unto Him in loving obedience! 
And then to watch the consummation of the plan of redemp- 
tion in Jesus Christ, through whom all may know God and 
come into vital relations with Him! And finally, all these 
truths are presented in a manner that even the simplest can 
understand. Truly, the Bible is "the one book wherein, for 
thousands of years, the spirit of man has found light and 



40 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

nourishment, and a response to whatever was deepest in his 
heart." 

2. The Permanent Religious Significance of the Old Tes- 
tament Writings. As Christians we find our loftiest inspira- 
tion in the study of the life, character, and teaching of Jesus 
and of His disciples. But the New Testament has by no 
means displaced the Old. Jesus and His disciples found soul- 
food in the pages of the Old Testament and constantly ex- 
horted their followers to do the same; and the early Chris- 
tians were right in placing it beside the New Testament, for 
not only is a knowledge of the Old Testament necessary 
for a right appreciation of the New, but the Old Testament 
itself is still of inestimable value. True, the New Testament 
presents a more complete and perfect conception of the truth, 
but there are few New Testament truths that have not their 
roots in the Old; and a vast number of people, who them- 
selves have not yet reached a state of perfection, will under- 
stand even New Testament truths more readily as they are 
presented in the Old Testament, for here they can see the 
truths in concrete form; they have flesh and blood; they are 
struggling for victory over darkness and superstition. Nearly 
all the great and vital doctrines of the Church, though 
founded principally on the New Testament, become more real 
and human, more impressive and forceful, as we study their 
development under the Old Testament dispensation. 

Aside from these general considerations, the student can 
easily convince himself that every part of the Old Testament 
is filled with religious teaching that even to-day is of the 
highest importance to any one who desires to develop a pure 
and noble character and to serve well his day and generation. 
Take the first eleven chapters of Genesis — while we should 
not go to these chapters to study geology, astronomy, biology, 
or any other science, the opening chapters of Genesis do re- 
veal what connection the world has with God, how everything 
may be traced to Him as the fountain head of life, that there 
is a unifying principle and purpose underlying the origin and 



WHY STUDY THE BIBLE 41 

history of the globe, and many other religious and ethical 
truths that afford a truer conception of God, man, and of 
the divine plan and purpose for the latter. These chapters 
are followed by the stories of the patriarchs. Missionaries 
tell us, and experience at home has confirmed the claim, that 
the stories of the patriarchs are of inestimable value to im- 
press lessons of the reality and providence of God and to en- 
courage the exercise of faith and confidence in Him. There 
is nothing that can be substituted for them in religious in- 
struction. "Abraham," says Professor Driver, "is still the 
hero of righteousness and faith ; Lot and Laban, Sarah and 
Rebekah, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph, in their characters and 
experiences, are still in different ways types of our own selves, 
and still in one way or another exemplify the ways in which 
God deals with the individual soul, and the manner in which 
the individual soul ought or ought not to respond to His 
leadings." The history of the Hebrews is one continuous 
illustration of the reality of a divine providence, and the 
historical books reveal on every page the hand of God in 
human history. In a more specific way they show the un- 
folding, in the mind of man, under the influence of the di- 
vine, of those great religious and ethical ideas which have be- 
come the mainspring of humanity's progress. The Hebrews 
have been, and their history still is, the religious and ethical 
teacher of mankind. 

How can we estimate rightly the devotional value of the 
Psalter? Truly, "what the heart is in man that is the Psalter 
in the Bible." Here we have the outpourings of human souls 
in the closest fellowship with God, giving without restraint 
expression to the most various emotions, hopes, desires, and 
aspirations. What other literary compositions lift us into 
such atmosphere of religious thought and emotion? Surely 
the sweet singers enjoy a pre-eminence from which they can 
never be removed. Again, take the Wisdom Literature. 
Where do we find such compacted, sanctified common sense 
as in the Book of Proverbs; a more consistent application of 



42 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

the principles of pure and undefiled religion to the daily life, 
be it of the individual, or of the family, or of the State? 
Where can be found more lofty religious speculation than in 
the Book of Job? or more persistent mental struggles with 
the perplexing problems of life than in Ecclesiastes, closing 
with the triumphant assertion, "Fear God and keep His 
commandments, for this is the whole duty of man?" 

But in this age, when the responsibility of the individual 
Christian and of the Christian Church toward the practical 
social, moral, and religious problems and evils is recognized 
more than at any previous time, the prophetic literature is 
worthy of the most careful study on the part of all. The 
prophets of old met in the strength of God and at the divine 
impulse the problems and evils in their age. They had to 
face the problems of materiahsm and commercialism; the 
evils resulting from the accumulation of wealth, power, and 
resources in the hands of a few ; very serious labor problems, 
cruelty, oppression, arrogance on the part of the rich propri- 
etors; corruption in government and the administration of 
justice; they had to grapple with a cold, heartless formalism 
that threatened to destroy pure spiritual religion. Surely it 
is a part of our duty as Christians to do our share toward a 
Christian solution of the social and religious problems of the 
day; and in our efforts to accomplish this end we may learn 
much from the prophets of old. (Compare, for example, the 
permanent lessons of the Book of Amos pointed out in 
Chapter XIL) 

3. The Permanent Religious Value of the New Testament. 
All the features that give to the Old Testament such unique 
value appear in even greater numbers in the New Testament, 
and here in a purer and more perfect form. Any one ac- 
quainted with the New Testament writings knows that their 
one purpose is to promote man's living union with God and 
to help him reflect in his own life the purity and holiness 
of the Divine pattern: "Be ye perfect even as your Father 
in heaven is perfect." How numerous are the passages con- 



WHY STUDY THE BIBLE 



43 



cerning the nature and character of God, the character and 
work of the Christ ; the denunciations of sin and vice opposed 
to man's union with God, the exhortations to virtue and 
purity of heart and life ! The Gospels supply most excellent 
material for Christian nurture in the discourses, miracles, and 
parables of Jesus. The "Sermon on the Mount" with its sub- 
lime beatitudes, and other discourses of Jesus, will forever 
remain a source of light and devotion to the attentive student. 
The narratives of the miracles are most suggestive of feel- 
ings of admiration and love and thanksgiving to God. In like 
manner the parables are an inexhaustible source of light and 
strength to any one who ponders on them. More instructive 
and inspiring still is our Lord's biography. Whether we con- 
template Him in the manger at Bethlehem, in the workshop 
at Nazareth, in the synagogue in Galilee, in His triumphal 
entrance into Jerusalem, in the garden of Gethsemane, on the 
cross, or after His resurrection — wherever we behold Him, 
He is ever and always the perfect pattern "of the new man, 
which after God is created in righteousness and true holi- 
ness." And the more the character and life of Jesus are 
studied, and dwelt upon, the more they will be seen to ex- 
hibit, wonderfully combined in one person, "whatsoever things 
are honorable, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things 
are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are 
of good report ;" the more the}^ will appear to be in all points 
worthy of our contemplation, and the more they will inspire 
us to earnest imitation. In addition to this Exemplar of all 
perfection the New Testament furnishes character sketches 
of a large number of faithful disciples of Jesus. Have Paul, 
John, Peter, Martha, Mary, Timothy, Luke, Titus, the early 
Christians in Jerusalem, or Antioch, or Corinth, no message 
for the twentieth century? Indeed, they have; they supply 
excellent material for study and meditation; and if properly 
used they will promote a closer union of hearts, minds, and 
lives with the Almighty. 

Let us glance for a moment at the Epistles. They were 



44 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

written for the instruction of men like ourselves; to "meet 
the emergencies that arose in the planting and growth of the 
Churches ; to lay the basis for a rational, spiritual life of 
faith in the living Jesus." They deal with all the essential 
elements, doctrinal and practical, of Christian life and activity. 
There is not an Epistle but which, if properly studied, will 
enrich experience and life. The New Testament closes with 
that mysterious book — Revelation. Many parts of it may ap- 
pear mysterious and hard to understand; but it contains also 
much practical instruction. It surely may serve to bring 
Jesus, the exalted Redeemer, close to man in his life strug- 
gles, for the book makes it clear that a watchful eye is rest- 
ing upon the affairs of men in this life. Revelation assures 
us that these sorrows, temptations, and trials are to end at 
last in complete victory, in everlasting peace and joy. Is this 
no message to strengthen, to encourage, to inspire the Chris- 
tian in the battlefields of life? 

Truly, one may look where he will in the pages of the 
sacred Book, from first to last, and everywhere he will find 
words of wisdom, of encouragement, of consolation, of in- 
spiration, of life. A book of this character deserves the clos- 
est and most persistent searching and inquiry. 

Lesson Outline: 

The testimony of the ages. 

The literary excellence of the Bible. 

Importance of Bible study to a knowledge of literature and 

history. 
Unique religious value. 
Permanent religious value. 



Bibliography : 

Briggs, "The Study of Holy Scripture." 
Lock, "The Bible in Christian Life." 
Prothero, "The Psalms in Human Life." 
Jordan, "Prophetic Ideas and Ideals." 



WHY STUDY THE BIBLE 



45 



Topics for Special Study: 

1. The literary masterpieces of the Bible. 

2. The bearing of prophetic teaching on modern social and 

political problems. 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. Reasons for studying the Bible. 

2. Why is the Bible of so great religious value? 

3. Ways in which the New Testament aids in the perfecting 

of character. 



CHAPTER V 

HOW STUDY THE BIBLE 

1. Mere Reading is not Study. The transition from the 
Why to the How of Bible study is quite natural. The first 
point to be noted is, that mere reading of the Bible is not 
study of the Bible. There are undoubtedly those who imagine 
that there is a certain merit in the reading of a stated por- 
tion of the Bible every morning and evening, as there are 
those who seem to feel that "saying their prayers" is an act 
of merit. Thomas Fuller apparently has in mind this me- 
chanical reading when he writes : "Lord, I discover an arrant 
laziness in my soul. For when I am to read a chapter in 
the Bible, before I begin I look where it endeth. And if it 
endeth not on the same side I can not keep my hands from 
turning over the leaf to measure the length thereof on the 
other side; if it swells to many verses I begin to grudge. 
Surely my heart is not rightly affected." This kind of Bible 
reading, no matter how long continued, and no matter how 
much ground covered, nor how often covered, will never in- 
troduce the Christian to the riches of the sacred Book. To 
learn its lessons, to appropriate its truths, to feed with its 
message the hungry soul, one must give to its pages earnest 
study, diligent searching, persistent inquiry, tireless zeal. But, 
some one may ask. Granting that I must study the Scriptures 
earnestly and diligently, how am I to go about it so as to 
receive the greatest benefit? In answer to this inquiry this 
chapter will consider two essential factors in all proper and 
successful Bible study: (i) Methods of study; (2) The right 
spirit in Bible study. 

46 



HOW STUDY THE BIBLE 47 

2. The Literary Method of Bible Study. The compara- 
tively recent discovery that the Bible contains sublime speci- 
mens of various forms of literature has given rise to what 
may be called the literary method of Bible study. The liter- 
ary student is wide-awake to the literary form of Scripture; 
he recognizes the presence of literary masterpieces and studies 
them from the literary standpoint. Now it is unquestionably 
true that without proper regard for the literary form of the 
Scriptures the deeper significance of their teaching can not 
be understood. Unfortunately the devotional student has 
often overlooked this fact, and as a result, in many cases, 
has failed to understand the real significance of a passage. 
On the other hand, over-emphasis of the literary features 
may blind the eyes to the real purpose of the Book. After all, 
the Scriptures were not written and collected primarily as 
specimens of various forms of literature, but to record and 
interpret divine revelations; and it is readily seen that in the 
pursuit of a narrow literary method insufificient weight may 
be given to this primary purpose. However important it may 
be to estimate correctly the literary features of the Bible, the 
Christian can not be content with studying its writings as he 
would study history, or poetry, or other forms of literature 
outside of the Bible. 

3. The True Aim of Bible Study. The primary purpose 
of the Biblical writers was to record and interpret the mani- 
fold revelations of God as seen and apprehended by them. 
This being the case, the primary purpose of the Bible study 
should be to understand these revelations of God, to know 
Him, His nature, character, and will, and by becoming ac- 
quainted with these to bring God nearer to us and us nearer 
to Him in obedience and love. It follows that the study of 
the Bible as a book of devotion is the only adequate kind of 
Bible study. 

4. Dangers of Unsystematic Bible Study. The purpose of 
the devotional student of the Bible is to discover what is the 
message of the portion studied, be it great or small, to his 



48 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

own soul and life. This to some seems exceedingly simple. 
Many open the Bible and read or study wherever attention is 
accidentally arrested, sometimes the passage the eye lights 
upon, sometimes the spot touched by the finger. John Ruskin 
aptly describes the manner in which many Christian people 
seek to acquire a knowledge of the Bible. The way they read 
their Bibles, he says, is "just like the way the old monks 
thought that hedgehogs ate grapes. They rolled themselves, 
it was said, over and over where the grapes lay on the 
ground. What fruit stuck to their spines they carried off and 
ate. So," he continues, "your hedgehoggy readers roll them- 
selves over and over their Bibles, and whatever texts first 
stick to their spines they carry off and feed on. But," he 
adds, "you can only get the skins of the texts that way; if 
you want their juice you must press them in cluster." 

Some good may undoubtedly be derived even in this hap- 
hazard way. Even the most simple may open the Book al- 
most anywhere and find encouragement, or inspiration, or 
consolation, or whatever else he may need; and this fact is 
a strong evidence of the presence of a divine element in the 
Book. But surely it is not wise, yea, it is not right, to feed 
on crumbs when there is provided a constant, inexhaustible 
feast. Moreover, this superficial, though devout, study is. 
fraught with grave dangers. It gives to the reader not only 
a fragmentary conception of the truth; it may give him an 
entirely false idea of the teaching of a passage. A text 
wrested from its connection may be made to mean almost 
anything. 

If the Bible is a book written many centuries ago by 
men of an entirely different race, of different modes of think- 
ing and expression, the greater part in a language foreign 
to any of the languages with which we are ordinarily fa- 
miliar, dealing with the profoundest subjects with which the 
human mind can grapple, with subjects that directly or in- 
directly are related to all kinds of knowledge; if the Bible 
is such a book, who can expect to understand its teaching 
after a superficial reading or study? One of the first require- 



HOW STUDY THE BIBLE 49 

ments to assure results in devotional Bible study is the adop- 
tion of a proper method of study. Of various methods sug- 
gested there are, apart from the method pursued in Sunday- 
school, with which the reader is familiar, especially three that 
enjoy more or less popularity: (a) The Topical Method; 
(b) The Study by Characters; (c) The Study by Books; 
(d) The Critical Method. 

a. The Topical Method of Bible Study. In following out 
the topical method of Bible study the student becomes in- 
terested in certain great subjects, such as faith, love, salva- 
tion, heaven, and others. He decides to discover all the Bible 
has to say on these topics; so he takes the Bible, a con- 
cordance, or some help especially prepared for the purpose, 
and, going through the entire Bible, reads and studies every 
passage containing the term. 

That this method, if properly used, may prove helpful can 
not be denied; that very often it is a source of serious error 
is equally true. Most of the false theologies and false ethics 
of modern times are traceable to this method of Bible study. 
And this is easily explained, for, in the first place, such study 
is only fragmentary. Love, or faith, or any other Bible truth, 
may be taught or elaborated in a passage which does not 
contain these terms; yet this method makes it possible to 
carry on the study with entire disregard of such passages. 
Moreover, the topical method tends to wrest separate state- 
ments from their contexts, and thus to obscure or even per- 
vert their meaning. Not one great doctrine of the Christian 
Church has escaped perversion on the part of those who 
failed to exercise the proper caution while pursuing the top- 
ical study, and thus discredit has been brought upon the Bible 
and Christianity. Indeed, the topical method is a snare to 
the unwary. To follow it successfully, one must already 
have mastered the Bible as a whole, so as not to pervert the 
meaning of the separate parts. 

b. The Study of the Bible by Characters^ A better method 
than the preceding, and one quite popular, is the study of 

4 



50 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

the Bible by characters. The great personalities of the Bible, 
such as Abraham, Joseph, Samuel, David, Jesus, John, Paul, 
and others, are selected, and their lives and characters are 
made the subjects of study. Thus the student becomes ac- 
quainted with their excellencies, their weaknesses, their vic- 
tories, their defeats, their temptations and struggles, in fact 
with everything that touched their lives and helped to mold 
their characters. These were men like ourselves, with the 
same natures, the same temptations and struggles, and a study 
of their lives and experiences may be an inspiration or warn- 
ing, as the case may be, to the one who pursues the study. 

This is a perfectly legitimate method of Bible study. 
Moreover, it is a very simple method, which every one, even 
the least experienced, may pursue to his unspeakable advan- 
tage. In addition, it is a method that readily yields results, 
for every single character teaches one or more practical les- 
sons, and the farther the student advances the greater and 
the more precious the truths learned; and in the end, if the 
study is pursued with patience and perseverance, if the les- 
sons learned are consistently applied by the student to his 
own life and character, the result will manifest itself in a 
godly, Christlike life and character. 

c. The Study of the Bible by Books, A third method, and 
the one almost universally recognized as the most satisfactory 
in the end, is the study of the Bible by books. Attention has 
been called several times to the importance of looking at the 
context of a passage of Scripture in order to determine its 
exact meaning. But what is the context? Is it only a sen- 
tence before or after the particular passage the student is 
considering? Sometimes that may be all. In other cases 
it may be a chapter or two; in still others it is the whole 
book; indeed, one can never be sure that he is getting the 
precise point of view and real meaning of any one sentence 
of any book unless he takes it as a part of the whole and 
with reference to the general line of thought and practical 
design of the author. It is this kind of study, and this kind 



HOW STUDY THE BIBLE 51 

of study alone, that will save the reader from misunderstand- 
ing and misinterpretation. Moreover, it is well to bear in 
mind that, while the Bible is in a real sense one book, one 
plan, one spirit, one purpose running throughout the whole, 
in another sense it is a library consisting of many books. 
These were written and published separately, each with its 
own meaning and purpose. Since, then, each of the sacred 
books has its own aim and value, it goes almost without say- 
ing that the Bible student should try to get the practical im- 
pression that each of them is designed to make. For instance, 
each of the Gospels presents certain aspects of the life, char- 
acter, and work of Jesus. If, now, the student finds out how 
each of the Gospels portrays Him, and then blends them all 
together in loving faith, in reverence, and in humble desire 
to live like Him, he has made the most beautiful harmony of 
the Gospels ever attempted. 

And so it is with other parts of the Bible. We need the 
practical inspiration which each particular book can give. If 
this method of study is pursued intelligently, it will prevent 
misunderstanding and misinterpretation, it will furnish a 
knowledge of the practical significance of each part, and in 
the end will give the most comprehensive vision of the whole. 
Only on the basis of such study can the study by characters 
or by topics be pursued to the best advantage. 

d. The Critical Method of Bible Study. In the method 
of study described in the preceding paragraph the student 
has constantly in view the message which the book studied 
may have to his own soul and life. But from what has been 
said it must have become clear that much preparatory work 
must be done before the student can expect to understand 
adequately the message of the book. Now, there is another 
method of study, which places much emphasis upon these 
preliminary labors. For want of a better name it may be 
called the critical method. It concerns itself with the text, to 
determine its form as it left the hand of the author, and seeks 
to set in a clear light the origin and literary history of the 



52 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

book. When was it written? where? by whom? to whom? 
for what purpose? No sane person can doubt that answers 
to these and similar questions are essential if the message 
of the book is to be understood. As long as this method 
of study retains its proper place as a means to an end it 
is not only legitimate, but necessary. However, it becomes 
inadequate and disastrous when, through overemphasis of 
preliminary questions, the true aim of Bible study is lost 
sight of. 

5. Suggestions for the Study of the Bible by Books. A 

few words may be added as to the simplest manner in which 
the ordinary Bible student can study the Bible by books. For 
the beginner it would be best to select a simple book; for 
example, in the Old Testament, the Book of Amos; in the 
New Testament, one of the Gospels. Having made the se- 
lection, the student should acquire, first of all, a fairly well 
defined general notion of its contents. This he can do by 
reading the book carefully, if possible at one sitting, and read- 
ing it thus several times. It is an exceedingly difficult mat- 
ter to understand any book if it is read always only in frag- 
ments. After reading the book intelligently, he should at- 
tempt to write down the general impressions of its theme and 
substance. This should be followed by another reading or 
two, on the basis of which the impressions written down 
should be corrected. This process should be continued until 
the student has secured a fair knowledge of the book as a 
whole. But this is only the first step. The student should 
next get an idea of the logical arrangement of the contents 
of the book. If he finds it difficult to work this out for him- 
self, he may consult an analysis of the book as found in some 
Bible help. With this analysis in mind, he should now pro- 
ceed to master the book section by section by a careful study 
of each word and sentence. While it is advisable to use in 
this study commentaries and other helps, the student must 
never assign first place to them; the Bible must be the basis 
of study, other books should be used only as means to a 



HOW STUDY THE BIBLE 53 

better understanding of the message of the Biblical writer. 
To best impress the results upon his own mind, he may do 
well to write them down. Having proceeded thus far, he 
may cast aside the analysis used and make one of his own, 
based upon the contents as he interprets them. 

The successive steps will enable the student to view and 
estimate the book as a whole. Now he is prepared to take 
up the topical study of that one book. Naturally the topics 
will vary with different books, but certain topics should be 
studied in connection with all books. Going through the 
book, the student should collect all materials touching upon 
the author, the time and place of writing, the purpose, the 
persons addressed, the conditions of the writer and of the 
first readers, the several religious truths expressed, and many 
more. Every student pursuing his studies along the lines 
suggested will soon be prepared to make his own list of 
topics. After doing all this the student will become conscious 
of having mastered the book, that he understands its teach- 
ing, and that he can apply it to his own life and conduct so 
as to receive new impulses and inspiration to live a Christ- 
like life. Now he is ready to turn to another book, until he 
has mastered the whole Bible. While going thus from book 
to book he may very profitably turn from time to time to a 
book already mastered and read small portions suitable to 
the needs of a particular time. 

This kind of study requires time, patience, and industry; 
but it is the only kind that in the end will enable the student 
to determine for himself what the Bible actually says, and will 
give to him a comprehensive insight into the mysteries of 
God as revealed in the Bible. And after all, fifteen minutes 
or half an hour a day, if set aside regularly, will accomplish 
great things. In closing this section the admission may be 
made that there is, perhaps, no clear-cut method of Bible 
study that will apply to all students and all occasions. Every 
student has peculiarities of his own, and naturally he will 
adopt a method and introduce modifications which seem to 



54 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

him best adapted to achieve the results he desires. Neverthe- 
less, whatever the individual peculiarities, there are certain 
fundamental principles which underlie all successful Bible 
study, and to these attention is called in the preceding para- 
graphs. 

6, The Attitude of Mind and Heart in Bible Study. A 
second essential factor in Bible study is the proper attitude 
of mind and heart, the spirit in which the student approaches 
the Bible. In the first place, he who seeks to obtain the best 
results must approach the Bible in the spirit of a learner; he 
must be humble and childlike, ready to receive instruction. 
Again, he must approach the Bible in a spirit of open-minded- 
ness, willing to receive the truth, though that truth may be 
contrary to the notions cherished before thorough Bible study 
was entered upon. Moreover, he must enter upon the study 
in a spirit of expectancy. The investigation of any subject 
may be approached in one of three attitudes of mind as to 
results. There may be a spirit of uncertainty and indifference, 
or a spirit of non-expectancy, or a spirit of expectancy, of 
assurance that the efforts will not be in vain. Only the stu- 
dent who approaches the study of the Bible in the last-men- 
tioned attitude and spirit will see the most helpful results. 
There must also be a spirit of determination and perseverance. 
If the student is turned aside by any difficulty, be it great 
or small, the sweet, full-grown fruit can not be his. The 
richest truths of the Bible are not found by one who is 
easily tired out. Bible study demands unwearied persever- 
ance. Another essential requisite is a spirit of prayerfulness. 
There are sayings in the Bible hard to be understood, for the 
natural man receiveth not the things of God; but the Spirit 
searcheth all things, even the deep things of God. This is 
the Spirit that is to lead into all truth. Bible study can never 
be what it should be unless the student approaches the Sacred 
Book in a spirit of prayer for the illumination of his heart 
and mind by the Spirit of truth. Once more, there must be 
a spirit of responsiveness. By this I mean more than willing- 



HOW STUDY THE BIBLE 55 

ness to be taught. Sooner or later the student finds that the 
truths he discovers impose upon him certain duties that ap- 
peal to his conscience. Now, scientific truth is most readily 
mastered by practical application. The same is true of moral 
and religious truth. He that willeth to do is the one that 
will learn the most. Whenever a truth is found in the Bible 
it should be accepted not merely as an abstract truth, but as 
a part of the inner life to find expression in conduct. 

In this wise the present writer would answer the inquiry, 
how to study the Bible, and he is convinced that if the 
student brings to the Bible the right method and the right 
spirit, God will say to him, in the words of the four and 
twenty elders before the throne of God, "Thou art worthy 
to take the Book and open the seals thereof." 

Lesson Outline: 

The meaning of study. 

The study of the Bible as literature. 

The devotional study of the Bible. 

Dangers of unsystematic study. 

Methods of Bible Study : Topical ; biographical ; by books ; 

the critical method. 
The right spirit in Bible study. 



Bibliography : 

Moulton, "The Literary Sttidy of the Bible." 
Trumbull, '* Hints on Bible Study." 
Sell, "Bible Study by Books." 
Smyth, "How to Read the Bible." 

Topics for Special Study: 

1. The study of some one book according to the suggestions 

of paragraph seven. 

2. The historical criticism. 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. What are the dangers of poor methods of Bible study? 

2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of topical study. 

3. The best general method of Bible study. 

4. Elements of the right spirit in Bible study. 



PART II 

THE OLD TESTAMENT 

By F. C. Eiselen 



CHAPTER VI 

THE HISTORICAL PORTIONS OF THE PENTA- 
TEUCH AND JOSHUA 

1. The Pentateuch. The first five books of the Old Tes- 
tament were called by the early Jewish rabbis, "The five-fifths 
of the Law/' Following this custom, early Christian writers, 
beginning with Tertullian and Origen, called the collection 
consisting of the five books "Pentateuch," which means "the 
five-book treatise." Modern scholars add to the five books 
in the Pentateuch the Book of Joshua, because "its contents, 
and still more, its literary structure, show that it is intimately 
connected with the Pentateuch and describes the final stage 
in the history of the Origin es of the Hebrew nation." Hence 
it has become customary to speak of the first six books of 
the Bible — Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteron- 
omy, and Joshua — as the "Hexateuch," that is, "the six-book 
treatise." 

The historical portions of the Hexateuch cover the period 
beginning with the creation of the world and ending with the 
settlement of Israel in Canaan. This period may be divided 
into three epochs: (i) The beginning of all things, Gen. 
i:i — 11:9; (2) the Hebrew patriarchs, Gen. 11:10 — 50:26; 
(3) the organization of Israel as a nation and its settlement 
in Canaan, the historical sections of Exodus, Leviticus, Num- 
bers, Deuteronomy, and the Book of Joshua. 

The Pentateuch contains material taken from different 
sources which the author had before him in written form. 
These documents probably did not reach their final form un- 
til some time subsequent to Moses, but all of them contained 

59 



6o THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

ancient material, much of it going back to the time of Moses, 
some of it even to pre-Mosaic days. Hence it is quite proper 
to associate the name of Moses with the Pentateuch, because, 
first, he was the author and originator of the movement and 
impulse which culminated in the Pentateuch ; and second, 
the historical, religious, and ethical development reflected in 
the Pentateuch progressed in the spirit of Moses and along 
the lines laid down by him. 

The chronology of the Old Testament offers very perplex- 
ing problems, especially with reference to the period covered 
in this chapter. Archbishop Ussher placed creation at 4004 
B. C, but modern research has compelled us to push this 
date back, though it may be uncertain just how far. Not 
until the age of Abraham does Bible chronology reach any 
sort of firm foundation. If Abraham was the contemporary 
of Hammurabi, the great king of Babylon, as is suggested in 
Gen. 14 : i, his date is approximately 2000 B. C. ; the descent 
into Egypt may have taken place in the seventeenth century, 
and the most probable date of the Exodus is about 1225 B. C. 
meaning "origin" or "generation," is derived from the Septua- 

a. Contents of the Book of Genesis, The name Genesis, 
gint translation; in the Hebrew Bible the book is designated 
by its first word, translated in the English Bible, "In the be- 
ginning." Two main divisions may be recognized: I. The 
beginning of all things (1:1 — 11:9); II. The stories of the 
Patriarchs (11: 10 — 50 : 26) . 

The first division falls naturally into the following sec- 
tions : 

1. The creation of all things (1:1 — ^2:25). 

2. The beginning of sin (3: 1-24). 

3. Early growth and corruption (4:1 — 6:8). 

(i) The first murder (4:1-16). 

(2) The earliest civilization (4:17-24). 

(3) The hne of Seth (4: 25— 5 : 32). 

(4) The apostate sons of God (6:1-8). 



I 



THE HISTORICAL PORTIONS 6i 

4. Noah and his times (6:9 — 9:29). 

(i) The flood (6:9—9:17). 
(2) Noah's prophecy (9:18-29). 

5. The origin of the peoples (10: i — 11 : 9). 

(i) The gradual dispersion (10: 1-32). 
(2) The confusion of tongues (11: 1-9). 

It is more difficult to arrange the remaining chapters of 
Genesis according to a similar system, but its contents may 
be briefly indicated. The Hebrews possess many character- 
istics which are common to the group of nations known as 
the Semitic race. The racial relations of the Hebrews are 
briefly indicated in Gen. 1 1 : 10-26, which traces the genealogy 
of Shem down to Abraham, whose migration from Southern 
Babylonia to Canaan marks the first beginnings of the Hebrew 
people. The remaining portion of the book consists of nar- 
ratives centering around the three great patriarchs, Abraham, 
Isaac, and Jacob, and of Joseph, the favorite son of Jacob. 
The lives of these are narrated with considerable fullness 
down to the descent into Egypt, with an account of which 
Genesis closes. The connecting bond in this section is the 
promise to Abraham and the covenant based upon it (12: 1-3), 
the unfolding of which is exhibited in the histories of the 
patriarchs and the rise of the twelve tribes. The various 
steps in the development are connected, and the interest is 
concentrated by the use of the formula, "These are the gen- 
erations of:" Shem, 11:10; Terah (Abraham), 11:27; Ish- 
mael, 25 : 12 ; Isaac, 25 : 19 ; Esau, 36 : i, 9 ; Jacob, 2)7 • 2. 

b. Significance of (Genesis. The permanent value of Gen- 
esis I to II lies in the religious teaching of the chapters. It is 
not in their knowledge of physical facts that the authors were 
elevated above their contemporaries, but in their knowledge 
of God's connection with these facts. What good would 
have resulted if these ancient writers had proposed new views 
of the universe which, though true, were foreign to the think- 
ing of their contemporaries? They would have been looked 



62 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

upon as madmen and fanatics; people would have mocked 
them and rejected all their teaching, both religious and scien- 
tific. No serious loss would come to men if they were left 
a while longer in ignorance about matters of science; but 
serious loss would come to them by continuing in their lower 
religious and ethical beliefs and practices. The ancient in- 
spired teachers sought to rectify the latter, and they used 
current scientific notions as vehicles for the teaching of high 
and lofty religious and ethical truths. Scientifically, there- 
fore, these chapters give the best that the age of the writers 
offered; religiously they give something that the age as a 
whole did not possess; something that came to the writers 
as a result of their intimate fellowship with God; and in 
this divine element lie the significance and permanent value 
of the narratives. 

The one supreme lesson taught throughout the entire sec- 
tion is, "In the beginning God.*' The more important lessons 
of the separate narratives are briefly summarized by Driver 
as follows : "The narrative of creation sets forth, in a series 
of dignified and impressive pictures, the sovereignty of God; 
His priority to and separation from all finite, material nature; 
His purpose to constitute an ordered cosmos, and gradually 
to adapt the earth to become the habitation of living beings; 
and His endowment of man with the peculiar, unique pos- 
session of self-conscious reason, in virtue of which he became 
capable of intellectual and moral life and is even able to know 
and hold communion with his Maker. In chapters 2 and 3 
we read, though again not in a historical, but in a pictorial 
and symbolic form, how man was once innocent, how he be- 
came conscious of a moral law; and how temptation fell 
upon him and he broke it. The fall of man, the great and 
terrible truth, w^hich history not less than individual expe- 
rience only too vividly teaches each one of us, is thus im- 
pressively set before us. Man, however, though punished by 
God, is not forsaken by Him, nor left in his long conflict 
with evil without hope of victory. In chapter 4 the increas- 



THE HISTORICAL PORTIONS 63 

ing power of sin, and the fatal consequences to which, if un- 
checked, it may lead, is vividly portrayed in the tragic figure 
of Cain. The spirit of vindictiveness and the brutal triumph 
in the power of the sword is personified in Lamech. In the 
narrative of the flood God's wrath against sin and the divine 
prerogative of mercy are alike exemplified: Noah is a stand- 
ing illustration c J the truth that 'righteousness delivereth from 
death,' and God's dealings with him after the flood form a 
striking declaration of the purposes of grace and good-will 
with which God regards mankind. The narrative of the tower 
of Babel emphasizes Jehovah's supremacy in the world, and 
teaches how the self-exaltation of man is checked by God." 

The permanent religious significance of the patriarchal 
narratives is brought out in chapter IV. Here a few words 
may be added concerning their historical value. The later 
history of Israel presupposes a nomadic stage in the develop- 
ment of the people such as is described in Genesis 12 — 50, and 
there seems good reason for believing that the narratives fur- 
nish a truthful picture of the general conditions in the patri- 
archal period. It follows, therefore, that even as historical 
documents the partiarchal narratives are of inestimable value. 

c. The Historical Portions of the Books from Exodus to 
Deuteronomy. The closing chapters of Genesis record how 
the Hebrew nomads, after living in Canaan for some genera- 
tions, were driven by famine into Egypt, where the Pharaoh 
settled them in Goshen, in the eastern portion of the Nile 
Delta. There they remained in practical seclusion for many 
generations, retaining very largely their customs and beliefs. 
This period is passed over very briefly in the Book of Ex- 
odus, "And the children of Israel were fruitful, and increased 
abundantfy, and multiplied, and waxed exceeding mighty; 
and the land was filled with them." (Ex. 1:7.) In the 
course of time a new dynasty arose in Egypt, under which 
began a period of oppression, from which the Hebrews were 
delivered under the leadership of Moses (about 1225 B. C). 
Exodus I : I — 12 : ^6 portrays the closing years of the stay 



64 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

in Egypt: the oppression, the history of Moses, his mission 
to Pharaoh, and the plagues sent upon Egypt for the purpose 
of securing the release of the Hebrews. Exodus 12 : 37 — 
18:27 contains a record of the departure from Egypt, the 
overthrow of the Egyptians, and the march of the Israelites 
until they reached Mount Sinai. The rest of the Book of 
Exodus records some of the events before Mount Sinai, but 
the greater part is devoted to an account of the giving of the 
Law. The Book of Leviticus belongs almost exclusively to 
the legal literature, as also considerable portions of Numbers 
and Deuteronomy. 

The Book of Numbers carries the account of Israel's jour- 
neyings to the settlement in the country east of the Jordan. 
Chapters l — 4 contain chiefly the census taken of the people 
who came out of Egypt. Chapters 11 — 19 record the wan- 
derings of Israel : the survey of Canaan, the refusal to enter 
the land, the march back to the wilderness, and various re- 
bellions. The period covered extends from the second to the 
beginning of the fortieth year. Chapters 20 — 24 relate the 
events of the first ten months of the fortieth year : the march 
around Edom, the death of Aaron, the conquest of the land 
of the Amorites and of Bashan, and the episode of Balaam. 
Chapters 25 — 36 contain much legal material; the historical 
portions describe the sin of Baal-peor (25), the second census 
(26), the slaughter of the Midianites (31), the settlement 
east of the Jordan (32-35). The Book of Deuteronomy con- 
sists mainly of addresses to the people. The first of these 
(i: I — 4:49) contains a rehearsal of the history from Mount 
Horeb (Sinai) to the Jordan. Chapters 31 — 34 deal with 
the closing days of Moses: his charge to Joshua (31), the 
Song of Moses (32), the Blessing of Moses {33), the death 
of Moses (34). 

2. The Book of Joshua. The Book of Joshua takes up 
the narrative near the point where Numbers drops it, the 
only intervening event of importance being the death of 
Moses. Joshua is, therefore, the direct continuation of the 



THE HISTORICAL PORTIONS 65 

historical portions of the Pentateuch. Its contents may be 
briefly indicated as follows: I. Chapters i— 12, the conquest 
of Canaan; II. Chapters 13 — ^22, the division of the land 
among the tribes ; III. Chapters 23 and 24, Joshua's farewell 
addresses and an account of the death of Joshua and Eleazar. 
The principal events recorded in the first division are: the 
preparations for the conquest (i) ; the sending of the spies 
to Jericho, and their reception by Rahab (2) ; the crossing 
of the Jordan (3, 4) ; the encampment at Gilgal (5) ; the 
fall of Jericho (6) ; the trespass of Achan, and the attacks 
upon Ai (7, 8) ; the treaty with the Gibeonites (9) ; the con- 
quest of southern Canaan (10) ; the conquest of northern 
Canaan and other kings (11, 12). The second division (13 
— 22) gives a detailed account of the division of the land 
among the tribes, and yet their exact location can not be 
definitely established. On the one hand, the boundaries laid 
down are ideal, and in many cases the tribes were not able 
to conquer the whole territory allotted to them ; on the other, 
many of the localities named are not yet identified. Generally 
speaking, the southern portion of the central range was oc- 
cupied by Judah; still farther to the south, extending out 
into the desert, was Simeon. Ephraim and part of Manasseh 
were the dominant power in the center; between Ephraim 
and Judah the small but vigorous tribe of Benjamin, little 
more than a branch of Ephraim, found a home. The group 
of northern tribes consisted of Issachar, Zebulon, Naphtali, 
and Asher. Issachar occupied the rich plain of Esdraelon, 
Zebulon the rolling hills north of the plain, Napthali the nar- 
row strip along the Jordan, from the plain of Esdraelon to 
the Lebanon. West of the Lebanon, between it and Phoe- 
nicia, Asher settled, in the district known at a later time as 
Upper Galilee. Dan settled originally on the southwestern 
slope of Mount Ephraim, but the pressure of the populous 
tribe of Ephraim, the Amorites, and the Philistines compelled 
the Danites to seek a new home elsewhere. This was found 
in a retired spot at the foot of Mount Hermon, at Laish, a 
5 



66 



THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 



Phoenician colony, whose name was changed to Dan. Two 
tribes, Gad and Reuben, and a part of a third, Manasseh, 
settled east of the Jordan. The tribe of Levi received no 
fixed portion. 

A close study of the Book of Joshua reveals the fact that 
the story of the conquest is written from two distinct view- 
points : the one reflected in chapters i — 12, the other in 
brief notes scattered through the rest of the book. By piec- 
ing together the two accounts we can construct a fairly com- 
plete narrative of the conquest. After the death of Moses, 
Israel accepted Joshua as his successor, and continued on 
the path of conquest. The Jordan was crossed, and Jericho, 
the city of the palm trees, won. Gibeon, panic-stricken, made 
terms with the invaders. Israel, united under Joshua, won 
a great victory over a southern confederacy at Beth-horon. 
Elated by these repeated successes, Judah and Simeon broke 
loose from the main body and turned southward to take pos- 
session of the southern portion of the central range. Joshua, 
at the head of the strong house of Joseph, and followed by 
the tribes which afterward settled in the north, burst across 
the Plain of Esdraelon and defeated a northern confederacy 
at the waters of Merom. The Canaanites, however, after 
bending before the storm, recovered courage, retained for 
some time possession of the rich plain, and compelled the 
Israelites to keep to the hills. 

When the initial impetus of the conquest lost its force, the 
Canaanites were still masters of the land. Not all at once, 
nor by the sword alone, did the Hebrews come into posses- 
sion of their heritage. Peaceful means, such as intermarriage 
with natives and covenants or treaties with friendly neighbors, 
played an important role in the final conquest of Palestine. 
In some sections Canaanitish, in others Israelitish, influence 
was the stronger. The question was, Which would conquer 
in the end? The Canaanites, with their superior civilization, 
enjoyed a great advantage, and the newcomers learned of 
them agriculture and the few simple arts practiced in those 



THE HISTORICAL PORTIONS 67 

days. But the problem was not only political and social, it 
was religious as well. Would the Israelites accept the re- 
ligion of their teachers? If they did, the lessons of the past 
would have to be repeated, or true religion would be lost to 
the world. The crisis was serious; the more so because the 
religious and moral conceptions of the vast mass of the Is- 
raelites were still low and, therefore, the transition to the 
Canaanitish ideas was not very difficult. That Canaan did 
not triumph was due to the providentially raised-up leaders, 
who emphasized and re-emphasized again and again the ne- 
cessity of maintaining a strong and living faith in Jehovah, 
the God of Israel. 

Lesson Outline: 

The Pentateuch ; meaning of the word ; the Hexateuch ; pe- 
riod of history covered. 
Contents and significance of Genesis. 

The history of Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. 
The Book of Joshua. 

Bibliography : 

Ottley, "A Short History of the Hebrews." 

Kent, ^'History of the Hebrew People." 

Hastings, **One Volume Dictionary." 

Commentaries ; **Genesis," Bennett ; "Exodus," Bennett ; 

"Leviticus and Numbers," Genung; "Deuteronomy and 

Joshua," Robinson. 

Topics for Special SUidy : 

I. Institutions and religious ideas of patriarchal times. 
:2. The earliest history of Palestine. 
3. Canaanitish influence upon Israel. 

Topics for Class Discussion : 

1. What designation may best be used for the books treated 

in this chapter? 

2. The contents of Genesis. 

3. The real significance of Genesis. 

4. What are the principal historical events recorded by Ex- 

odus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy? 

5. The historical events of the Book of Joshua. 

6. The location of the tribes. 

7. The progress and methods of the conquest. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE LEGAL PORTIONS OF THE PENTATEUCH 

1. The Origin of the Legal System of the Hebrews. Prac- 
tically the entire legal system of the Hebrews is embodied 
in the Books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuter- 
onomy; outside of the Pentateuch the most important piece 
of legislation is Ezekiel 40 — 48. Israel's system of laws, in 
all its aspects — ceremonial, moral, civil, and criminal — un- 
doubtedly had its beginning with Moses. He proclaimed Je- 
hovah to be the one God of Israel, and Israel to be the pe- 
culiar people of Jehovah. In order to perpetuate the new 
/order, he must regulate the relation of the Israelites to their 
God, to one another, and to the nation as a whole. This 
brought about the creation or adaptation of a ceremonial sys- 
tem, the giving of certain moral commands, and the formu- 
lation of judicial precepts, which might govern the life and 
conduct of the people. The Mosaic origin of the legal system 
of the Hebrews is almost universally admitted. Says Well- 
hausen: "The priests derived their tordh [the Hebrew word 
meaning law] from Moses : they claimed only to preserve 
and guard what Moses had left. . . . From the historical 
tradition it is certain that Moses was the founder of the 
torah" So also Montefiore: "Moses . . . was unques- 
tionably the founder of that oral teaching, or torahj which 
preceded and became the basis of the codes of the Penta- 
teuch." On the other hand, it seems equally clear that the 
foundation laid by Moses was built upon by later generations, 
in the spirit of Moses, to meet the needs of a more complex 
and complicated state of society. This movement, which con- 

68 



THE LEGAL PORTIONS 69 

tinued through centuries, resulted finally in the legislative 
system embodied in the Pentateuch. 

2. The Several Law Codes and their Dates. It is possible 
to distinguish between six different collections of laws in the 
Old Testament. Five of these are in the Pentateuch ; the 
other forms the closing chapters of the Book of Ezekiel 
(chapters 40 — 48). The approximate dates when the Pen- 
tateuchal codes are thought to have reached their completed 
form are commonly given as follows : 

(i) The Decalogue, in some form — the days of Moses. 

(2) The Book of Covenant — the period of the Judges or 

the early monarchy. 

(3) The Deuteronomic Code — the seventh century, pre- 

ceding the reform movement under Josiah. 

(4) The Holiness Code — the early years of the exile. 

(5) The Priestly Code — the closing years of the exile and 

the post-exilic period. 

(Between 4 and 5, about 570, would come the Code of 
Ezekiel.) 

But while these are the periods in which the several codes 
are thought to have reached their completed literary form, it 
is universally admitted that all of them contain laws much 
earlier than the codes as a whole, some of them as early as 
the time of Moses; and some of the more extensive codes 
are thought to embody entire collections made at an earlier 
time. 

The entire system in its present form is known among 
Jews and Christians as the Law of Moses. If this system 
reached its final form by the steps just indicated, Moses can 
not be considered the author of all the separate laws con- 
tained in the various codes; and yet "Law of Moses" is not 
a misnomer; for it was Moses who called the Hebrew na- 
tion into being; it was he who inspired his contemporaries 
and later generations with lofty moral and religious ideals; 



70 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

it was he who laid the foundation of the Hebrew legal system 
in all its various aspects. The work of the later prophets, 
priests, and lawgivers was carried on in the spirit of Moses 
and along the lines laid down by him as the first great prophet 
of Israel, who "talked with God face to face.'* 

a. The Decalogue, The code commonly called the Deca- 
logue appears in two recensions, differing in details, in Ex- 
odus 20 and Deuteronomy 5. In both cases some of the 
commandments are expanded by certain hortatory additions. 
The legal requirements proper are as follows: 

(i) Thou shalt have no other gods before Me. 

(2) Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image. 

(3) Thou shalt not take the name of Jehovah, thy God, 

in vain. 

(4) Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy. 

(5) Honor thy father and thy mother. 

(6) Thou shalt do no murder. 

(7) Thou shalt not commit adultery. 

(8) Thou shalt not steal. 

(9) Thou shalt not bear false witness. 

(10) Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's wife. 

These ten commandments may be divided into two tables 
of five precepts each, the first five regulating the attitude of 
the people toward Jehovah and towards parents, who to chil- 
dren stand in the place of God. The other five, the attitude 
toward their fellow Israelites. 

Concerning the character and permanent significance of 
this code, it has been well said: "The marvelous perfection 
of this summary of moral law, its intrinsic excellency, the uni- 
versal applicability of its several precepts, and their abiding 
and unchanging nature, place these commandments in ad- 
vance of anything to be found elsewhere in the annals of 
human legislation. They are a summary of divine revela- 
tion so absolutely fundamental and comprehensive that on 
them hang all the law and the prophets. They are grounded 



THE LEGAL PORTIONS 71 

in the very nature of man as a moral being, and take due 
cognizance of his essential relations to God on the one hand, 
and to his fellows on the other." 

b. The Book of the Covenant It is unthinkable that 
Moses settled all disputes brought before him simply by ap- 
pealing to the Decalogue. He must have made his decisions 
more specific. That at least some of these decisions were 
written down for the guidance of future generations seems 
quite probable. The Book of the Covenant appears to be a 
collection of such decisions somewhat expanded and modified 
to meet the needs of the people after the settlement in Canaan. 

The Book of Covenant extends from Exodus 20 : 22 — 
23:19. Its laws deal with a variety of subjects, and it re- 
quires considerable adjustment to make a systematic arrange- 
ment possible. Originally the whole book may have been ar- 
ranged on the principle of the Decalogue, in the sense that it 
contained ten separate decalogues, each containing two groups 
of five laws. Corresponding to the two tables, the Book of 
the Covenant may be divided into two groups of laws, each 
consisting of five decalogues: (i) Judgments dealing with 
civil and criminal cases; (2) Religious and humane laws. 
The five decalogues of the first group are not difficult to re- 
construct; of the second group only four exist, though traces 
of the fifth appear. The collection of Judgments deals with 
the following subjects: (i) The rights of slaves (21:2-11); 
(2) Assaults (21 : 12-27) > (3) Laws regarding domestic ani- 
mals (21 : 28-36 ; 23 : I, 4) ; (4) Responsibility for property 
(22:5-15); Social Purity (22:16-20). The Religious and 
Humane Laws deal with (i) Kindness (22:2, 3, 6, 7, 21-27; 
23:4, 5); (2) Justice (23:1-3, 6-8); (3) Duties to God 
(20:23-26; 22:28-31); (4) Sacred Seasons (23:10-19). 

c. The Deuferonomic Code, The laws of Deuteronomy 
do not represent a break with Israel's earlier legislation, but 
rather an extension and development in the spirit of the 
eighth-century prophets. Three-fourths of the laws in the 
earlier codes are reproduced, in some form, in Deuteronomy. 



72 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

The omission of the others is easily accounted for by the 
purpose of the new code. It was intended for popular use, 
while the omitted laws were primarily for the guidance of 
the judges. The reasons for the alterations of more ancient 
laws, and the addition of new ones, are to be traced to the 
change in political, social and religious conditions, and to the 
teaching of the eighth-century prophets. The spirit of Deu- 
teronomy is prophetic. Service is ever placed above sacrifice. 
To love and to serve Jehovah and one's fellows with all the 
heart and soul is fts supreme demand. The detailed laws are 
presented simply as means by which this love may find ex- 
pression. 

In its present form the Book of Deuteronomy consists, 
aside from the introductory historical section (i — ^4) and 
the farewell speeches, exhortations, and blessings (27 — 34), 
of several rather loosely defined groups of laws : i. The pro- 
phetic decalogue, followed by a series of exhortations based 
chiefly on the first command (5 — 11). 2. Ceremonial and 
religious laws (12:1 — 17:7). 3. Appointment and duties of 
the officials in the divinely ruled commonwealth — judges, 
kings, priests, and prophets (17:8 — 18:22). 4. Criminal 
laws (19:1-21 — 21:1-9). 5. Military laws to be observed 
in case of war (20:1-20; 21:10-14). 6. A miscellaneous 
collection of civil, criminal, humane, and religious laws, many 
of which are closely related to those in the other groups 
(21:15 — ^25:19). 7. Presentation of the firstborn and the 
triennial tithe (26:1-19). 

d. The Law of Holiness, The so-called Law of Holiness 
is contained in Leviticus 17 to 26. The code derives its mod- 
ern name from the fact that its central idea is holiness, both 
moral and ceremonial. "Ye shall obey My commands and 
do them: I am Jehovah. And ye shall not profane My holy 
name; but I will be treated as holy among the Israelites. I 
am Jehovah, who maketh you holy, who brought you out 
of the land of Egypt to be your God: I am Jehovah." (Lev. 
22; 31-33.) 






THE LEGAL PORTIONS 73 

The Law of Holiness deals with a variety of topics. It 
IS noteworthy, however, that it lays much less stress upon 
civil and criminal legislation than upon moral and ceremonial 
requirements. Some of the more important subjects are: The 
slaughter of animals and sacrifice (17) ; unchastity and Mo- 
loch worship (18) ; the religious and moral behavior of the 
Israelites (19) ; penalties enjoined for Moloch worship, un- 
lawful marriage, and other offenses (20) ; regulations touch- 
ing priests and offerings (21, 22) ; the sacred seasons (23) ; 
the lights of the sanctuary, the showbread, the blasphemer 
and his punishment (24) ; the Sabbatic year and the year of 
jubilee (25). The code closes with a hortatory address, em- 
phasizing the fundamental duty of loyalty to Jehovah and 
His commands (26). In Leviticus 19: 18, "Thou shalt love 
thy neighbor as thyself," the Old Testament legislation 
reaches its noblest expression. 

e. The Priestly Code. The so-called Priestly Code is 
found chiefly in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. The un- 
derlying thought of the code is that Israel is called to be a 
holy people, sanctified by the presence of Jehovah in its midst. 
The nation is treated as a Church living only for the service 
of God, and the whole legislation is intended to maintain the 
proper relation between Jehovah and Israel, or, if it should 
be broken in any way, to restore it. This is also the aim of 
the other codes, but the priestly code differs from them in its 
marked emphasis upon the external forms and ceremonial 
practices of religion. The following brief outline will sug- 
gest the characteristic requirements of the code: 

The law of circumcision (Gen. 17). 

The law of the Passover (Ex. 12). 

The tabernacle and its furniture; the dress and consecra- 
tion of the priests ; the law of the daily burnt offering, 
etc. (Ex. 25—31; 35—40. 

The ritual of various sacrifices (Lev. 1:1 — 6:7), 

Regulations relating to the priests, their dress, perquisites, 
etc. (Lev. 6:8 — 10:20). 



74 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Laws of purification and atonement (Lev. ii — 16; Num. 
5:1-4; 19. 

The commendation of tithes and vows (Lev. 27; Num. 30). 

Law of Nazarites (Num. 6). 

Duties, revenues, distribution of the tithes appointed for 
priests and Levites (Num. 18) ; concerning Levitical 
cities (Num. 35: 1-8). 

Miscellaneous laws, some supplementary, some intended to 
harmonize various passages in the completed code, some 
dealing with civil matters; for example, the law of in- 
heritance for daughters (Num. 27:1-11); the distribu- 
tion of spoil taken in war (Num. 31 : 21-30) ; the law 
relating to homicide, and the appointment of the cities 
of refuge (Num. 35:9-34). 

As long as the religious leaders retained the prophetic 
spirit and moral fervor, this legal system, with all its empha- 
sis on form, might serve as a means of religious education. 
It might help to "develop and deepen the sense of sin and to 
awaken in devout souls religious affections : trust, devotion, 
self-surrender, thankful love, the longing for divine grace." 
On the other hand, it would stand as a constant danger to 
spiritual religion. How easy it would be to be satisfied with 
a merely external standard of religion, to drift into a spirit 
of formalism, to confuse ceremonial holiness with moral 
purity ! Unfortunately, later generations yielded to these dan- 
gers, and Judaism became a mere form, without power and 
life. It should be remembered, however, that in the Canon 
of Sacred Scripture the priestly code never had an independ- 
ent existence. In the other collections of laws the broader 
duties of humanity, justice, and morality were insisted upon, 
and they were adapted to train a righteous and God-fearing 
nation. Hence, had the later Jews so desired, they might 
have known the things acceptable in the sight of God. Their 
failure was due not to neglectfulness on the part of the Divine 
Providence, but rather on the part of the Jewish community. 



THE LEGAL PORTIONS 75 

Lesson Outline: 

The origin of the Hebrew legal system. 

The several law codes ; dates, approximate origin, and expo- 
sition of each. 



Bibliography : 

Kent, "Israel's Laws and Legal Precedents." 

Terry, "Moses and the Prophets." 

Hastings, "Bible Dictionary," Article Law. 

Topics for Special Study: 

1. The character and influence of the Decalogue. 

2. The significance of the Deuteronomic Code. 

3. The origin and development of the Ceremonial Law. 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. The significance of the term, "the Laws of Moses.** 

2. What is the Decalogue? 

3. Explain the origin of the Book of the Covenant. 

4. The spirit and content of the Deuteronomic Code. 

5. The chief subjects of the Law of Holiness. 

6. The distinctive features of the Priestly Code. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE JUDGES AND THE UNITED MONARCHY 

1. The Books of Judges and Ruth, The principal sources 
of information for the period of the Judges are the Books 
of Judges and Ruth and i Samuel i — 12. The Book of 
Judges consists of three well-defined portions: I. An Intro- 
duction, I : I — 3 : 6, presenting a view of conditions in Pal- 
estine at the time the period of the Judges begins; II. The 
History of the Judges, Z'-? — 16:31; III. An Appendix, 
17 — 21, describing in detail two incidents belonging to this 
period: (i) The migration of the tribe of Dan (17, 18); 
(2) The outrage at Gibeah, and its consequences (19 — 21). 
The main part of the book consists of a series of older nar- 
ratives, fitted into a framework by a later editor, and pro- 
vided by him, where necessary, with introductory and con- 
cluding comments. The work of the editor appears most 
prominently in the ever-recurring formula, "The children of 
Israel did evil . . . He gave them into the hands of 
. . . They cried unto Jehovah . . . He raised up a 
deliverer." The older sources furnished him a knowledge 
of the events of history. The question arose in his mind. 
What is the explanation of the several ups and downs ? Upon 
the basis of a powerful faith in Jehovah, the God of Israel, 
he supplies the answer in the formula quoted. The Book of 
Judges, therefore, is not simply a record of historical events, 
but a record plus an interpretation. 

The Book of Ruth, which follows Judges in the English 
Bible, takes us to a period about a century before the time 
of David. It narrates how Elimelech of Bethlehem, his wife, 

76 



THE JUDGES— THE UNITED MONARCHY 77 

Naomi, and his two sons, Mahlon and Chilion, went to live 
in the land of Moab. The father dies, and the two sons 
marry Moabitish wives, Orpah and Ruth. After a while 
Mahlon and Chilion die, which leaves Naomi alone with her 
two daughters-in-law. She decides to return to Bethlehem, 
and Ruth insists on accompanying her (i). The remaining 
three chapters narrate how in Bethlehem Ruth makes the 
acquaintance of her kinsman Boaz, who in the end marries 
her. A son is born to them, Obed, the father of Jesse, who 
became the father of David. The narrative affords an idyllic 
glance of home life in Israel during the period of the Judges. 
The genealogy at the close suggests the probable purpose of 
the book. The Books of Samuel simply give the names of 
David's father and brothers; Ruth is intended to throw addi- 
tional light on his ancestry. 

2. The Judges and their Work, The Judges whose ex- 
ploits the book records are thirteen in number, or, if Abime- 
lech, who is not termed a Judge, be omitted, twelve: Othniel 
(3:7-11), Ehud (3:12-30), Shamgar (S'S^), Barak and 
Deborah (4, 5), Gideon (6:1 — 8:32), Abimelech (8:33 — 
9:57), Tola (10:1, 2), Jair (10:3-5), Jephthah (10:6— 
12: 7), Ibzan (12:8-10), Elon (12: 11, 12), Abdon (12: 13-15), 
Samson (13 — 16). Shamgar, Tola, Jair, Ibzan, Elon, and 
Abdon, to whose exploits but little space is devoted, are some- 
times called Minor Judges. 

The term Judges as applied to the leaders of this period is 
in a sense a misnomer. Deliverer, or savior, the designation 
found in the most ancient narratives, describes their charac- 
ter and function more accurately. The men were brought 
to the front by the necessities of the age. A common danger, 
most frequently an invasion, threatened a town or tribe. In 
such a crisis some man of superior courage, energy, or wis- 
dom arose and, rallying his tribesmen, led them to victory. 
Having demonstrated his ability to command and to act, he 
came to be regarded as the natural leader in crises of a sim- 
ilar character; but his authority was not derived from any 



78 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

constitutional provision; it was for the time being delegated 
voluntarily by the people under the pressure of a common 
need. But in that turbulent and chaotic age differences fre- 
quently arose between individuals and even whole clans, and 
these, under the dominion of blood revenge, led at times to 
serious and disastrous consequences. This condition of af- 
fairs would make the need of an arbiter, whose wisdom and 
authority both parties would respect, strongly felt. In the 
nature of the case difficulties of this sort were frequently re- 
ferred for settlement to these victorious champions. It is this 
fact which led later writers to call the local chieftains and 
deliverers by the name Judges. 

a. Conditions in Palestine at the Beginning of the Period 
of the Judges. When the Israelites crossed the Jordan they 
found a thickly populated land. Agriculture was the princi- 
pal occupation, and the inhabitants had attained a fairly high 
degree of civilization. Scattered throughout the land were 
strong cities, which only a short time before had been garri- 
soned by Egyptian soldiers, but Egypt had lost its hold, and 
the land was in political confusion. This state of things made 
it comparatively easy for the Hebrews to secure a foothold ; it 
was a much more difficult task to take possession of the whole 
land. True, peaceful assimilation played an important role 
in the final conquest, but for the most part the Canaanites did 
not surrender without the most desperate struggles. Again 
and again they threatened the invaders; at other times Israel 
was attacked by outside nations that sought to take for them- 
selves the more desirable districts of Palestine. The Book 
of Judges and the first twelve chapters of First Samuel de- 
scribe the struggles leading to the final conquest. 

h. The Several Crises during the Period of the Judges. 
The period of the Judges extends from the death of Joshua 
to the anointing uf Saul as king over Israel. Its exact length 
can not be determined; from the available evidence it would 
seem that it was somewhat less than two centuries. During 



THE JUDGES— THE UNITED MONARCHY 79 

these years six more or less serious crises arose, each of 
which called forth a deliverer, i. The first of the Judges, 
Othniel, delivered Israel from a Mesopotamian king, whose 
name is not given, but who is called Cushan-rishathaim, 
which means, the Cushite of double wickedness. 2. Ehud, of 
the tribe of Benjamin, did his work in the south. Eglon, the 
king of Moab, had seized the city of Jericho, and imposed 
tribute upon the adjacent territory. Ehud treacherously slew 
the king and, summoning the Ephraimites, succeeded in driv- 
ing the Moabites across the Jordan. 3. Meanwhile, the en- 
ergy of the Israelites in the north was expended in seeking 
to conquer the land, but they were not altogether successful. 
In the course of time the natives prevailed against the new- 
comers, and the Israelites were threatened with complete sub- 
jugation. In this crisis Deborah, the prophetess, and Barak, 
of Kadesh Napthali, summoned the Israelitish forces to "come 
to the help of Jehovah against the mighty." The battle with 
the Canaanites was fought in the Plain of Esdraelon, and 
ended in a decisive victory for Israel. The power of the 
Canaanites was forever broken, and Central Palestine was 
thrown open to the immigrants. 4. Soon a new danger threat- 
ened, this time from the east. Midianites began to cross the 
Jordan, and in a short time the Israelites, especially the tribes 
of Ephraim and Manasseh, were reduced to galling serfdom. 
From Manasseh arose the deliverer in the person of a brave, 
patriotic. God-fearing farmer, by the name of Gideon. So 
great was the gratitude of the Israelites that they offered to 
make Gideon king, but Gideon declined the honor. However, 
after his death, Abimelech, the son of Gideon and a Canaan- 
itish woman, secured the kingship, after slaying all the other 
sons of Gideon but one. The rule of Abimelech proved dis- 
astrous and soon came to an ignominious end. 5. The next 
crisis was caused by the Ammonites, another East Jordan peo- 
ple. They took advantage of the unsettled conditions in Is- 
rael, and seized the Israelite territory east of the Jordan. In 
time they began to cross the Jordan, and the Israelites, with- 



8o THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

out a competent leader, were worsted. Finally they called to 
their aid Jephthah, of the tribe of Gad, who defeated the 
Ammonites and dislodged them from all the Israelite terri- 
tory. 6. The sixth and severest crisis was caused by the 
Philistines in the southwest. The Book of Judges describes 
the exploits of Shamgar and Samson against the Philistines, 
but their deeds of personal daring were without permanent 
results. The struggles continued for several centuries, and 
ended in the complete triumph of Israel. 

3. The Books of Samuel and Kings. The events leading 
to the establishment of the monarchy and the history of the 
United Kingdom are recorded in the Books of Samuel and 
I Kings I — II. In both Samuel and Kings earlier and later 
strata may be distinguished. Evidently older material was 
taken by a later compiler and embodied by him into the pres- 
ent books, he supplying at the same time such connecting 
links as were needed in order to make a continuous nar- 
rative. 

The narratives center around the great personalities of 
the age. In i Samuel i — 7 Eli and Samuel are the chief 
characters; in chapters 8 — 14, Samuel and Saul; in chapters 
15 — 31, Saul and David. From the time David appears 
upon the scene the sympathies of the writer are largely with 
him. The central figure of Second Samuel is David. Chap- 
ters I — 7 record the successive steps by which David came 
to the throne of all Israel, his capture of Jerusalem, and the 
transference thither of the ark. Chapter 8 epitomizes his 
public acts, bringing his history to a close. It anticipates 
events which are described more fully in the succeeding sec- 
tion. Chapters 9 — 20 report in greater detail events in 
David's private and court life. The remaining chapters, 21 
— 24, constitute an appendix, consisting in part of extracts 
from old records of the reign of David, in part of lists of 
David's heroes and their deeds, and in part of poetical ma- 
terial assigned to David. The history of David is concluded 
and that of Solomon introduced in i Kings i, 2. Subsequent 



THE JUDGES— THE UNITED MONARCHY 8i 

events in Solomon's reign are recorded in chapters 3 — 11, 
special stress being laid upon the building and dedication of 
the temple. 

4, Events Leading to the Establishment of the Monarchy, 

The struggles with the Philistines brought Israel to the verge 
of destruction. The case seemed absolutely hopeless after 
the decisive victory of the Philistines at Aphek (i Sam. 4), 
when Jehovah Himself seemed unable to stem the tide against 
his chosen people. The defeat of Israel involved a twofold 
danger: (i) political, (2) religious. The Hebrew armies 
were demoralized, and there was nothing to prevent the Phil- 
istines from overrunning and annexing the entire Israelite 
territory, which would mean to Israel the loss of political in- 
dependence. More serious even was the religious danger. At 
Aphek Israel had put its trust in Jehovah. The people had 
sent for the ark, the external symbol of the divine presence, 
believing that with Jehovah in their midst defeat would be 
impossible. The battle went against them; apparently Je- 
hovah had failed them, or else the gods of the Philistines 
were stronger than He. In either case the question would 
arise. Is it worth while to serve Him if He is unable or un- 
willing to help? 

One man, Samuel, saw the need of the hour. He realized 
that if the religion of Jehovah and the national life were to 
be preserved, two things were needed: (i) a more com- 
plete union of the different clans and tribes, (2) a leader who 
could command and inspire men. Experience taught that the 
former could be secured only through emphasizing the re- 
ligious bond, which bound the heterogeneous elements to- 
gether in the beginning; hence Samuel, assisted by the sons 
of the prophets, sought to recall the people to Jehovah. It 
came also to be seen that to cement and maintain the union 
a more permanent form of government needed to be estab- 
lished; and as the kingship was the form adopted by Israel's 
neighbors, the attention naturally turned in that direction. 
Moreover, Samuel found a man who, he thought, possessed 

6 



82 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

qualities of leadership and promised to be the proper person 
to inaugurate the new form of government. Him Samuel 
anointed king; and when Saul had given evidence of his 
bravery in raising the siege of Jabesh-gilead, he was made 
king — about 1037 B. C. 

a. King Saul and His Reign. After his election Saul was 
compelled, first of all, to win his country from the Philistines. 
In part he was successful in this attempt; however, the strug- 
gles continued during his entire reign and finally cost him 
his life. Of other wars the expedition against Amalek re- 
ceives special mention, because of its important bearing upon 
the subsequent career of the king. 

The narratives centering around Saul deal more exten- 
sively with events touching his personal life than with his 
wars, and on the whole Saul appears in an unfavorable light. 
At first he had the hearty support of Samuel, but soon dif- 
ferences arose which in the end led to a complete break. 
Samuel was the representative of the religious-national class, 
Saul of the military-political party. The constant military ac- 
tivities of Saul were not conducive to the development of the 
finer qualities of the king, and soon it became evident that, 
whatever the good points in his character and person, he failed 
to appreciate the spiritual and ethical conceptions of Samuel. 
As a result the latter became convinced that Saul was not 
the man to lead Israel so that it could fulfill its God-given 
mission to mankind; he broke permanently with the king and 
selected as his successor one who was more in accord with 
the ideals represented by the religion of Jehovah. 

The breach with Samuel caused Saul to lose the support 
of the best elements in the nation. This made the king 
morose and melancholy. To cheer him the lad David, skilled 
in music, was brought to the court. He soon won the hearts 
of all, including the king's daughter. He also distinguished 
himself in war. These successes made Saul insanely jealous, 
and he determined to slay David. The latter was finally com- 
pelled to flee from the court; on several occasions his life 



THE JUDGES— THE UNITED MONARCHY 83 

was threatened, but when Saul fell into his power he mag- 
nanimously spared him. Weary of his wanderings, he at last 
fled to the Philistines, where he would be safe from the king's 
attack. Soon the Philistines, encouraged by the presence with 
them of the brave Israelite hero, made a new attack upon 
Israel, The battle took place at Mount Gilboa, and in the 
engagement, which proved disastrous to Israel, Saul commit- 
ted suicide. 

Though on the whole Saul proved a failure, it is not fair 
to overlook the good points in his character. The record pic- 
tures him as a simple-minded, impulsive, courageous warrior, 
and loyal patriot; but he was deficient in the maturer quali- 
ties demanded by his position, executive ability, tact, the 
power of organization, and, above all, patience and persist- 
ency. In addition, and this was the most serious defect in 
a king of Israel, he was unable to understand and appreciate 
the higher religious experiences and ideals which enlightened 
souls like Samuel were beginning to possess and without 
which he could never be an ideal representative of Jehovah 
upon the throne of Israel. 

b. King David and His Reign. As soon as the news of 
SauFs death spread, the elders and principal men of Judah 
made David their king. For about seven years he was king 
of Judah only, while Ishbaal, a son of Saul, was kmg over 
a small kingdom in the north. When at last Abner, the com- 
mander-in-chief of the north, and Ishbaal himself were as- 
sassinated, all the people turned to David. By the selection of 
a new political center, Jebus — Jerusalem — in the conquest of 
which north and south co-operated, he strengthened the union. 
The establishment of a royal sanctuary in the same place 
also would cause people from both sections to come there. 
The surrounding nations were either conquered or friendly 
relations were established with them, until his sway extended 
from the Lebanon in the north to the Red Sea in the south, 
and from the Mediterranean in the west to the Euphrates 
and the Syrian Desert in the east. Naturally the extension 



84 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

of power and territory led to a more complete organization 
of the army and the court. 

The domestic and court life of David was not as satis- 
factory and glorious as was his public life. The rebellion 
of his son Absalom and the events leading up to it must 
have cast a broad shadow over his household; the murder 
of Uriah, his marriage with Bathsheba, and the intrigues re- 
sulting from it, dim somewhat the glory of his reign. David 
was, indeed, not without his gross faults; nevertheless his 
intentions seem to have been in the right direction; and it 
is this fact, illustrated more or less consistently in all his life, 
which caused him to be called a man after God's own heart. 
During the closing years of his reign David seems to have 
withdrawn more and more from public activities, and yet at 
his death he left to his successor a strong and mighty empire. 

c. King Solomon and His Reign. The monarchy was a 
recent experiment in Israel, and the laws of succession had 
not been definitely fixed. However, in accord with the cus- 
tom prevalent among other peoples, the oldest son of the king 
seems to have been considered the natural successor, though 
apparently the people retained the right to reject him if they 
saw fit. The oldest living son of David was Adonijah, who 
considered himself entitled to the throne ; but he had a power- 
ful rival in Solomon, the son of the favorite Bathsheba, and 
after much intrigue the latter was anointed king. On the 
whole, the reign of Solomon was disastrous. He adopted the 
methods of an Oriental despot, with lofty political ambitions, 
and lacking in appreciation of the spiritual religion of Je- 
hovah. True, he erected the magnificent temple; and this act 
is the chief glory of his reign, and has caused later genera- 
tions to overlook many of his faults and follies ; but he was 
equally ready to build sanctuaries for other deities when his 
wife requested him to do so. 

Solomon is renowned for his wisdom, and the author of 
Kings has preserved several illustrations of his sagacity. But 
wisdom with the author of Kings is not what it is in the 



I 



THE JUDGES— THE UNITED MONARCHY 85 

Wisdom Literature or what is suggested by the term to-day. 
The absence of moral and spiritual perception was not in- 
compatible with it, for the writer is thinking only of the sec- 
ular type of wisdom, illustrations of which may be found 
among other Oriental peoples; and Solomon's mistakes as a 
ruler did not impair his reputation as the most famous wise 
man of his age and race. As a result of his policy he left 
Israel far weaker than it was when he ascended the throne, 
and it was during his reign that the seeds of decadence were 
sown which led to the dissolution of the kingdom. In addi- 
tion to the building of the temple, which proved of the most 
far-reaching significance, three things stand out prominently 
in the reign of Solomon, all of which had disastrous effects 
upon the nation's life : i. The revolts in Edom and Damascus, 
which showed that Israel was losing its hold on the nations 
conquered by David. 2. The oppression of the people, which 
caused dissatisfaction with the dynasty of David. 3. Com- 
mercial and marriage alliances, which opened the way for the 
introduction of foreign customs and religious ideas. 

Lesson Outline: 

The Books of Judges and Ruth. 

The Judges and their work. 

Conditions in Palestine at the beginning of the period of 

Judges. 
Principal events during the period. 
Contents of the Books of Samuel and Kings. 
Events leading to the establishment of the monarchy. 
King Saul and his reign. 
King David and his reign. 
King Solomon and his reign. 



Bibliography : 

Ottley, "A Short History of the Hebrews." 

Kent, ''Founders and Rulers of United Israel." 

Hastings, "One Volume Dictionary." Articles on various 

subj ects. 
Commentaries: "Judges and Ruth," Thatcher; "Samuel," 

Kennedy. 



86 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Topics for Special Study: 

1. Religious conditions in Israel in the period of the Judges. 

2. The military successes of David. 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. What was the real work of the Judges? 

2. Name the principal events of the period of the Judges? 

3. Give the principal causes leading to the establishment of 

the monarchy. 

4. Discuss the reign of Saul. 

5. Describe the elements of strength in David. 

6. Characterize the reign of Solomon. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE DIVIDED MONARCHY, THE EXILE, AND 
THE RESTORATION 

1. The Two Books of Kings. The Books of Kings are 
the principal historical sources for the period of the divided 
monarchy. The author of the books gathered his material 
from earlier sources; his own work is most apparent in the 
recurring formulas which constitute the frame work into 
which the citations from the . older sources are fitted. The 
opening formula is a little more complete in the case of the 
kings of Judah than in that of the kings of Israel. In the 
case of the former it gives (i) the synchronisms with the 
kingdom of Israel; (2) the age of the monarch at the time 
of his accession; (3) the length of his reign; (4) the name 
of the king's mother; (5) a brief judgment on his character 
and reign. In the case of Israel it gives (i) the synchronisms 
with Judah; (2) the length of the king's reign; (3) a brief 
judgment, always unfavorable. The closing formula assumes 
the following form: (i) The compiler's reference to his prin- 
cipal source of information; (2) mention of the king's death 
and burial; (3) name of the successor. One marked feature 
of these formulas is the stereotyped judgment upon each 
king, especially with reference to their attitude toward the 
high places. From this and other facts it is evident that the 
interests of the compiler were religious, rather than political; 
which, in turn, explains why so many events of importance 
to the modern historian were either ignored or received only 
passing notice. 

Within this framework the compiler inserted, practically 

«7 



88 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

without alteration — as may be seen from the change in style 
when there is a change in source — ^the older material, con- 
sisting in part of brief summaries of political events, in part 
of longer narratives not directly concerned with the public 
doings of the kings. The latter, most prominent among 
them the biographies of Elijah and Elisha, may have origi- 
nated partly from prophetic circles and partly from priestly 
centers. The work reached its final form soon after the de- 
struction of Jerusalem in 586 B. C. 

Sources of Information for the Later Period. The clos- 
ing verses of the Second Book of Kings relate two inci- 
dents: (i) the brief rule of Gedaliah and his assassination; 
(2) the release from prison of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, 
who was carried into exile in 597. No Biblical historical 
book gives a description of the life of the Jews in exile. As 
far as the Old Testament writings are concerned, the prin- 
cipal source of information on this point is the Book of 
Ezekiel. The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah deal with the 
restoration. They furnish glimpses of the first return in 537 
and the early experiences of the restored exiles ; concerning 
the activities of Ezra and Nehemiah their information is 
much fuller. The two books appear in the Jewish canon as 
one, and togetlier with Chronicles are probably the work of 
an author who lived in the latter part of the fourth century 
B. C This author used, in addition to other material, per- 
sonal memoirs of Ezra and Nehemiah, who are the heroes 
of the two books. Notwithstanding the late date of the books 
in their present form, there seems no reason for doubting 
that they present even in the portions originating with the 
compiler, a substantially correct picture of the experiences 
and struggles of the post-exilic community. The Book of 
Ezra falls naturally into two sections : I. The return of the 
exiles under Sheshbazzar, chapters i — 6; 11. The return 
under Ezra, and the reforms attempted by him, chapters 7 
— 10. The Book of Nehemiah may be divided into three 
parts : I. First visit of Nehemiah to Jerusalem, and the build- 



THE DIVIDED MONARCHY 89 

ing of the city walls, chapters i — 7; 11. Solemn promulga- 
tion of the Law, chapters 8 — 10; III. Various lists, dedica- 
tion of the walls, Nehemiah's second visit and subsequent re- 
forms, chapters 11 — 13. 

2. The Books of Chronicles. The two Books of Chron- 
icles, which appear as one in the Jewish canon, were written 
by an unknown author some time before 300 B. C. The 
books are not a continuation of Kings, but cover practically 
the same ground as the historical writings from Genesis to 
Kings ; in other words, they embrace the period from Adam 
to the edict of Cyrus, in 538 or 537, permitting the exiled 
Jews to return to Jerusalem; the genealogies are continued 
to even a later date. The viewpoint of the chronicler is not 
that of the earlier historical writers, for while in the other 
books prophetic elements predominate, the Books of Chron- 
icles are permeated by the priestly spirit, and might be called 
an Ecclesiastical History, The contents of Chronicles may be 
outlined as follows : I. History of events from Adam to Saul, 
I Chron. i — 9; this is almost entirely in the form of gene- 
alogies; II. History of David, i Chron. 10 — 29; III. The 
Reign of Solomon, 2 Chron. i — 9; IV. History of Judah, 
from the division of the kingdom to the restoration, 2 Chron. 
10—36. 

The chronicler seems to be dependent, directly or indi- 
rectly, upon the Pentateuch, Joshua, and Ruth, and much 
more extensively upon Samuel and Kings. In addition he 
used numerous other sources, to which frequent references 
are made. But the material thus received by the compiler 
is not slavishly copied by him; he alters it by making addi- 
tions or subtractions to suit his own peculiar purpose. It is 
quite evident that he means to give a history of Judah only, 
with special reference to the temple and the religious institu- 
tions and practices centered in it; whatever had no bearing 
upon these subjects was either rapidly passed over or entirely 
omitted. Moreover, in the selection and arrangement of the 
material he seems to have been prompted by a didactive mo- 



90 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

tive rather than by a strictly historical aim. His aim appears 
to be to teach that virtue and vice, in private life or in na- 
tional affairs, invariably receive their dues; past history is 
drawn upon to illustrate and enforce this teaching. 

3. The Book of Esther, Of the books reckoned among 
the historical books in the English Old Testament one re- 
mains to be considered, namely, Esther. The tone of the 
Book of Esther compares unfavorably with the spirit of al- 
most every other Old Testament book. Like the Book of 
Ruth, it deals with a special incident; but while Ruth be- 
longs to the period of the Judges, Esther takes us to the 
post-exilic period, the days of Xerxes (485-465 B. C.) The 
story relates how Esther, a Jewish resident in the Persian 
capital Susa, rose to be queen of Xerxes, and how she suc- 
ceeded in rescuing her countrymen from the destruction 
which Haman, the king's favorite, had prepared for them. 
"The story is well told. The queen of Xerxes is deposed for 
contumacy, and her crown is set upon the head of Esther, a 
lovely Jewish maiden. Presently the whole Jewish race is 
imperiled by an act of Mordecai, the foster-father of Esther, 
who refuses to do obeisance to Haman, a powerful and fa- 
vorite courtier. Haman's plans for the destruction of the 
Jews are frustrated by Esther, acting on a suggestion of 
Mordecai. The courtier himself falls from power, and is 
finally hanged on the gallows he had prepared for Mordecai, 
while Mordecai, the Jew, is exalted to the place next to the 
king, and the Jews, whom the initial decree had doomed to 
extermination, turn the tables by slaying over 75,000 of their 
enemies throughout the empire, including the ten sons of 
Haman. In memory of the deliverance the Purim festival is 
celebrated on the 14th and 15th of the month Adar." 

The object of the book is apparently twofold: (i) to 
explain the origin of the Purim festival, (2) to glorify the 
Jewish people. Its date can not be definitely fixed; but it 
is not impossible that it represents a phase of the fierce 
Palestinian Judaism of the second century B. C. 



I 



THE DIVIDED MONARCHY 91 

4. The Division of the Kingdom. The events leading 
to the division of the kingdom are described in detail. The 
people, dissatisfied with the policy of oppression introduced 
by Solomon, demanded of his son a reduction of the burden, 
but he stubbornly refused; whereupon the northern tribes 
cut themselves loose from the house of David, and elected as 
their king Jeroboam, of the tribe of Ephraim. It must not 
be thought, however, that the stubbornness of Rehoboam was 
the only cause of the division. The narratives suggest at 
least one other important factor, namely, the attitude of the 
prophets. The latter realized that a continuation of Solo- 
mon*s policy would mean ruin to the religion of Jehovah; on 
the other hand, they thought that with the resources divided, 
the carrying out of his policy would be rendered impossible; 
hence, to save religion they were ready to sacrifice the union. 
But to understand the full cause it is necessary to turn back 
a few chapters in Hebrew history. The earliest records in 
the Books of Joshua and Judges present to our view two 
groups of tribes: on the one hand, the tribes in the north 
and center; on the other, Judah and Simeon. Each group 
fought its own battles and wrestled with its own problems. 
The Song of Deborah (Judges 5), which describes the war 
of independence in the north, does not even mention Judah 
and Simeon. Never during *the period of the Judges was the 
gulf bridged over, and it is a significant fact that the dividing 
line of the earlier period became practically the dividing line 
between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. There were es- 
pecially two facts that caused and helped to maintain the 
division: i. A line of strong Canaanitish cities, of which 
Jebus was one, extended almost entirely across the land from 
east to west, thus cutting off the north from the south; 
2. The southern tribes seem to have absorbed an unusually 
large native element, which tended to neutralize the mutual 
attraction of blood and religion. 

Under the stress of a common danger the tribes united 
for a while under the standard of Saul, But the support of 



92 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

the south was soon withdrawn, when David, who belonged 
to the South, was driven from the court. The readiness 
with which the elders of Judah proceeded after the death 
of Saul to make David their king, shows conclusively that 
the union of north and south was not very strong. When 
the sword cut down Abner and Ishbaal and left the north 
without a leader, necessity compelled the northern tribes to 
submit to David, but the weakness of the union showed itself 
when, after the rebellion of Absalom, the north revolted and 
had to be subdued by force of arms. Solomon took care, in 
the beginning of his reign, to remove by the sword the per- 
sons who might prove troublesome. Perhaps he felt too se- 
cure after this, for his conduct was by no means such as 
would reconcile the people to himself. Although for a time 
they may have been dazzled by the splendor of his reign, 
they soon discovered that the glitter was not all gold. There 
could be but one outcome to Solomon's policy. To over- 
ride the rights of the individual, and to reduce to serfdom a 
people which a generation before was free and independent, 
meant inevitable rebellion as soon as opportunity would offer. 
a. Important Events in the History of the Northern 
Kingdom. If the year of the division is placed at about 937, 
as is commonly done, the history of the Kingdom of Israel, 
from the division to the fall of Samaria, which marked its 
downfall, in ^22, covers approximately 215 years. Of the 
more important events during this period the following may 
be mentioned: i. The establishment of the royal sanctuaries 
at Dan and Bethel, for the purpose of counteracting the at- 
tractiveness of the temple worship in Jerusalem. 2. The 
frequent changes in dynasties and numerous assassinations. 
An idea of the unsettled conditions in Israel may be gathered 
from the fact that during the 215 years of its existence Israel 
had altogether nineteen kings, belonging to nine distinct 
d3^nasties. During the same period Judah had only twelve 
kings, with no change of dynasties. 3. The rise of the dy- 
nasty of Omri, about 885, and the splendid reign of its 



THE DIVIDED MONARCHY 93 

founder marks a new epoch. The genius of Omri manifested 
itself in the selection of the hill of Samaria as the site of 
his capital. Though he suffered some reverses, on the whole 
his reign was exceedingly successful, and he raised the 
northern kingdom to a position of power such as it had not 
enjoyed before. 4. The reign of Ahab is made prominent 
by the introduction of Baal worship and the activity of the 
great prophets Elijah and Elisha. i Kings 17 — 2 Kings 13 
is devoted to the lives and activities of these two men of 
God. Ahab adopted the policy of Solomon, and thus aroused 
much resentment among the people. 5. The revolution of 
Jehu. With the death of Ahab, about 853, began a series of 
disasters for Israel. At last the religious storm, which had 
been brewing for some time, broke in the revolution of Jehu, 
apparently instigated by the prophets, which swept the Baal 
cult from the land and the hated dynasty of Omri from the 
throne. 6. Jeroboam II, who reigned from about 782 to 741, 
was the most successful king of the Jehu dynasty. Through 
the extension of territory, the revival of commerce, and the 
development of the natural resources of the land, Israel rose, 
during his reign, to a pitch of power and prosperity unheard 
of since the days of Solomon. The evils which resulted from 
this material prosperity called forth the prophets Amos and 
Hosea. 7. From the summit of glory and splendor under 
Jeroboam, Israel fell within one generation to the lowest 
depths of disaster. Four of the six kings who succeeded him 
were struck down by assassins, and one was slain by foreign 
invaders; only one died a natural death. This condition of 
anarchy and the foolish foreign policy of the rulers culmi- 
nated in the destruction of Samaria and the kingdom in 
722/721 B. C. 8. From the days of Omri on, the fortunes 
of Israel were closely bound up with the fortunes of Assyria. 
The first mention of an Israelite king in an Assyrian in- 
scription is in an account of the battle of Karkar, in 854, 
where Ahab is said to have been one of the alHes to resist 
the Assyrian armies. After that Assyria interfered again 



94 



THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 



and again in Israel's history, and the kingdom's downfall 
was caused by its armies. 

b. Important Events in the History of the Southern 
Kingdom. The territory of the south was only about one- 
half that of the north, while the arable land was less than 
one-fourth. But though in size the northern kingdom was 
superior to the southern, Judah enjoyed several advantages, 
which proved of considerable importance in its later history. 
Among these were (i) its seclusion, which helped to keep 
away foreign invaders; (2) the condition of its soil, which 
yielded only a meager subsistence in return for the most 
wearisome labor, was calculated to develop hardy, earnest, 
courageous men, fond of their rocky hills and tenacious of 
their peculiar customs and religion; (3) the unity of popu- 
lation and interests made of Judah a perfect social unit 
bound together by the closest natural bonds; (4) the cen- 
tralization of government in Jerusalem under a hereditary 
dynasty, which enjoyed the prestige of the name of David 
and all the cumulative power which comes from an uninter- 
rupted succession, tended to give stability to the southern 
kingdom; (5) another element of strength was furnished by 
the centralization of worship in the temple. Religion had 
proved a bond of union in the past. Now the temple in Je- 
rusalem, with its splendid equipment, commanded the rev- 
erence and homage of all the people of Judah, and was, 
therefore, a potent factor for union. 

Partly at least as a result of these advantages the south- 
ern kingdom continued to exist about 135 years longer than 
Israel. It came to an end with the fall and destruction of 
Jerusalem, in 586 B. C. During the period of its existence, 
lasting about 350 years, Judah had nineteen kings and one 
queen, all the kings belonging to the dynasty of David; but 
few of them were capable and efficient rulers, and by no 
means all were as loyal adherents of the religion of Jehovah 
as was their ancestor David. Asa, Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, 
and Josiah receive special commendation for their piety, and 



THE DIVIDED MONARCHY 95 

a few of the others increased the welfare of their countrj^ 
Of the more important events the following may be briefly 
noted: i. The long struggles with the north, which began 
under Rehoboam and continued, with few intermissions, to 
the close of Israel's history. 2. The invasion of Judah by 
Shishak of Egypt five years after the death of Solomon, 
which proved a serious blow to the southern kingdom and 
weakened its military resources. 3. The reign of Jehosha- 
phat, who introduced a new stage in the nation's life with 
respect to popular instruction and the administration of jus- 
tice. 4. The six years' reign of Athaliah, the daughter of 
Ahab and Jezebel of Israel. She advocated Baal worship, 
but her rule came to an ignominious end through a rebellion 
headed by the chief priest Jehoiada. 5. The prosperous reign 
of Uzziah, who was a contemporary of Jeroboam IT, of 
Israel. As in Israel, the material prosperity was followed by 
serious religious and social evils. 6. The activity of Isaiah 
and Micah, who during the latter part of the eighth century 
tried to recall Judah to a purer worship and more righteous 
life. 7. The partial reforms instituted by King Hezekiah 
and aided by the two prophets named. During his reign 
occurred also the invasion of Judah by Sennacherib of As- 
syria, which culminated in the remarkable deliverance of 
Jerusalem. 8. The reactionary reign of Manasseh, who 
sought to root out entirely the worship of Jehovah. 9. The 
reform movement under Josiah in 621, which marked the 
beginning of a new epoch in the religious development of 
Judah, though its immediate results were somewhat disap- 
pointing. 10. The conflicts with the Assyrians and their suc- 
cessors, the Chaldeans, which began during the eighth cen- 
tury and resulted in the downfall of the State in 586 B. C. 
c. The Exile and the Restoration. Many of the Jews 
were carried into exile to Babylonia after the capture of 
Jerusalem. The number of captives it is difficult to estimate; 
the total was probably somewhat less than fifty thousand. 
The exiled Jews were in no sense slaves; they seem to have 



96 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

been free in every respect except in the choice of residence. 
Many grew wealthy, and many turned away from the re- 
ligion of Jehovah. But there were others, in whom the 
teaching of Jeremiah, emphasizing the individual and spir- 
itual aspect of religion, had taken root; these continued their 
allegiance to Jehovah, under the guidance of Ezekiel a purer 
type of religion was developed, and the hopes of a restora- 
tion to the Promised Land were kept alive. There are espe- 
cially three aspects of the religious development during the 
period of exile that stand out prominently: i. A vital sense 
of repentance was generated; 2. Religion came to be con- 
sidered a more spiritual and personal matter; 3. Monotheism 
was placed upon a firmer basis. 

After the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the conqueror of 
Judah, the power of Babylon rapidly declined, until, in 538, 
Cyrus, the king of Anshan, became master of the city and 
empire. He showed great leniency toward the nations de- 
ported by the Babylonians and gave them permission to 
return to their homes. In 537 a company of Jews, con- 
sisting of from forty to fifty thousand persons, took advan- 
tage of this permission and returned to Palestine. Imme- 
diately on reaching Jerusalem an altar was erected and the 
foundations of a new temple were laid. But the religious 
interest soon died out, and when opposition arose from with- 
out, the people dropped the building enterprise. In 520 the 
two prophets Haggai and Zechariah arose, urging the people 
to resume building operations, as only in this wise they could 
secure the favor of Jehovah. Their efforts were crowned 
with success, the operations were resumed, and in 516 the 
temple was dedicated. 

The information concerning the period between the com- 
pletion of the temple in 516 and the arrival of Ezra in 458 
is rather scanty, but the following features stand out promi- 
nently: (i) The rise of skepticism due to the non-fulfillment 
of prophecy and the observation of the inequalities of life; 
(2) neglect of offerings and tithes; (3) oppression of the 



THE DIVIDED MONARCHY 



97 



I 



poor; (4) marriage alliances with heathen women; (5) di- 
vorce; (6) Sabbath desecration. In 458 came Ezra, the 
scribe, and in 445 Nehemiah, the governor. Both were in- 
tensely interested in the best welfare of their countrymen, 
and both came with privileges and authority bestowed upon 
them by the Persian king. Ezra immediately attacked the 
abuses, though apparently without much result; but when 
Nehemiah came and the two joined forces, things began to 
come to pass. The city wall was built, and then attempts 
were made to bring about far-reaching reforms covering all 
the points enumerated. This was done chiefly by establish- 
ing the law as final authority over every detail of public 
and private life. These reforms were not carried out with- 
out arousing strenuous opposition. Especially the provisions 
for the putting away of foreign wives aroused resentment, 
but Nehemiah was immovable. One of the results of this 
measure was the secession of Manasseh, the grandson of the 
high priest Eliashib, who refused to give up his wife. 
Whereupon his father-in-law, Sanballat, is said to have es- 
tablished for him a rival temple at Gerizim, the religious 
center of the Samaritan community. 

d. From Nehemiah to the Opening of the Christian Era. 
The Old Testament historical books do not take us beyond 
the reforms of Nehemiah in 432. Of later events, reflected 
in part in the latest Old Testament writings, in part in the 
apocryphal books, the following may be mentioned as the 
most important: i. The growth of legalism and, accompany- 
ing it, the development of a spirit of narrow exclusiveness 
on the part of the Jews. 2. Alexander the Great became 
master of Palestine in 332. 3. After the division of his king- 
dom Palestine became, in 301, a province of Egypt, and re- 
mained such until 198. This period was, on the whole, one 
of marked prosperity. 4. The privileges offered to Jewish 
colonists by the kings of Egypt and Syria caused the scatter- 
ing of the Jews in many directions. 5. Greek influence be- 
came very strong in some parts of Palestine after the con- 
7 



IS BIBLE 

quest of Alexander. 6. The translation of the Hebrew Bible 
into Greek was begun in Alexandria about the middle of 
the third century B. C. 7. Palestine became a province of 
the Seleucidan kingdom of Syria in 198. 8. The attempts of 
Antiochus Epiphanes to stamp out Judaism caused the Mac- 
cabean revolt in 168 B. C. 9. During the second century B. C. 
arose the Jewish sects of the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and 
the Essenes. 10. The Roman rule in Palestine began in 
63 B. C. 

Lesson Outline: 

The two Books of Kings. 

Sources of information on the period of the Exile and the 

Restoration. 
The Books of Chronicles. 
The Book of Esther. 

The causes of the division of the kingdom. 
Important events in the history of the northern kingdom. 
Important events in the history of the southern kingdom. 
The Babylonian captivity and restoration. 
Historical events after the time of Nehemiah, 432 B. C. 



Bibliography : 

Kent, ''History of the Jewish People." 
Kent, ''The Kings and Prophets of Israel and Judah." 
Riggs, "History of the Jewish People." 

Commentaries : "Kings," Skinner ; "Chronicles," Harvey- 
Jellie; "Ezra and Nehemiah," Ryle; "Esther," Streene. 

Topics for Special Study: 

1. The purpose of the Chronicler. 

2. The effect of the Babylonian captivity upon the religion 

of the Jews. 

Topics for Class Discussion : 

1. Point of view of the Books of Kings. 

2. Point of view of the Books of Chronicles. 

3. The causes of the division of the kingdom. 

4. Chief events of the history of Israel. 

5. Advantages of the southern kingdom. 

6. Chief events of the history of Judah. 

7. Describe the Babylonian captivity. 

8. Tell of the work of Ezra and Nehemiah. 



CHAPTER X 

THE DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE OF THE 
OLD TESTAMENT 

1. Poetry in the Old Testament. Since the devotional 
literature of the Old Testament is in the form of poetry, it 
seems advisable to consider briefly the general subject of 
Hebrew poetry before taking up the study of the devotional 
books. The Old Testament has preserved a large amount 
of this poetry, but there are references and allusions which 
show that much of it has been lost. For example, reference 
is made to the Book of the Wars of Jehovah (Num. 21 : 14) 
and the Book of Jashar (Josh. 10:13), evidently collections 
of poems earlier than those now found in the Hebrew Scrip- 
tures. Old Testament poetry has to do with all experiences 
and conditions of life that yield themselves to poetic treat- 
ment. Much of this poetry is preserved in the historical 
books, and the translators of the Revised Version are to be 
commended for indicating the poetic form in the text. Some 
of these poetic compositions are secular in the sense that they 
center around secular themes, but even these are pervaded 
by a deep religious spirit. The best specimens of secular 
poetry are the Blessing of Jacob (Gen. 49:2-27); the Tri- 
umph Song over the destruction of the Egyptians (Ex. 15: 
1-18) ; the Blessing of Moses (Deut. 33:2-29); the Song of 
Deborah (Judges 5:2-31); the Fable of Jotham (Judges 
9:8-15); the Lament of David over Saul and Jonathan (2 
Sam. 1 : 19-27) . The prophetic books also contain many 
fine specimens of poetry; and frequently the prophets rise 
to an elevated poetic style which can not easily be distin- 

99 



loo THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

guished from poetry proper. In addition to these scattered 
poems the Old Testament contains five books that consist 
entirely, or almost so, of poetic compositions, namely, the 
Books of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Lam- 
entations. The author of Ecclesiastes is also at times led 
to express his thoughts in poetic form. These six books 
represent two of the five kinds of Old Testament literature 
distinguished in the first chapter, namely, the devotional and 
the wisdom literature. 

a. Essential Characteristics of Hebrew Poetry. Poetry 
is defined by Leigh Hunt in these words : "Poetry is the ut- 
terance of a passion for truth, beauty, and power, embodying 
and illustrating its conceptions by imagination and fancy, 
and modulating its language on the principle of variety and 
uniformity." In this definition three essential characteristics 
of all true poetry are recognized: i. The substance is emo- 
tional. It is the utterance of a passion for truth, beauty, and 
power. Poetry springs from the emotions, and therefore 
touches the emotions. 2. Its presentation is imaginative. 
Literalism is discarded, and imagination is given full sway 
in the presentation of the substance. 3. The inevitable result 
is the use of an emotional, sublime style, a style marked by 
the lively swing which is called rhythm. The formal element 
of rhythm, which may be defined as the harmonious repeti- 
tion of certain fixed sound relations, is marked in classical 
poetry by the regulated succession of long and short syl- 
lables. This method has practically disappeared from mod- 
ern western poetry, where the regulated succession of ac- 
cented unaccented syllables has taken its place. In addition, 
the rhythm may be emphasized by the use of rhyme, that is, 
the correspondence in sound of the final syllables in the lines. 
Rhyme is illustrated by the stanza: 

Just as I am, without one plea, 
But that Thy blood was shed for me. 
And that Thou bidst me come to Thee; 
O Lamb of God, I come ! 



I 



THE DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE loi 

The regulated succession of accented and unaccented syl- 
lables without rhyme, called "Blank Verse," is shown in 
these lines from the Drama of the Exile, by Mrs. Browning : 

If thou hadst gazed upon the face of God 
This morning for a moment, thou hadst known 
That only pity fitly can chastize, 
Hate but avenges. 

The ancient Hebrews were an intensely religious people, 
and the emphasis upon religion supplied them with the emo- 
tional material which yields itself readily to poetic treatment. 
As Orientals they possessed the imagination needed in all 
poetic description. But where these two characteristics are 
found, rhythmic expression follows almost inevitably, pro- 
vided the author possesses a poetic genius. However, for 
centuries no one knew the method of indicating rhythm in 
Hebrew poetry. The merit of discovering the secret belongs 
to Bishop Robert Lowth, at the time Professor of Poetry at 
Oxford, who, in 1753, published a work on "Sacred Poetry 
of the Hebrews," in which he pointed out that the external 
form of Hebrew poetry was not marked by rhyme, or the 
regulated succession of accented and unaccented, or long and 
short syllables, but by the arrangement of two clauses of ap- 
proximately the same length, so that the second clause an- 
swers or otherwise completes the thought of the first. To this 
phenomenon he gave the name "Parallelism of Members." 

Lowth distinguished three kinds of parallelism : i. Synony- 
mous Parallelism; that is, parallel arrangement in which the 
second line contains a thought identical with or similar to the 
thought of the first line. Compare, for example. Psalm 1:2: 

But his delight Is in the law of Jehovah, 

And in His law doth he meditate day and night. 

2. Antithetic Parallelism. Here the thought of the first line 
is confirmed or emphasized by contrast, the second line ex- 
pressing the opposite thought ; for example, Prov. 10 : i : 

A wise son maketh a glad father, 

But a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. 



I02 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

3. Synthetic or Constructive Parallelism. Here the second 
line contains neither a repetition of the thought of the first 
line, nor a contrast to it, but in different ways advances it. 
There may be a simple completion of the thought, as in 
Psalm 2:6: 

Yet I have set my King 

Upon Zion, my holy hill ; 

or, the second line may supply a comparison or motive; for 
example, Proverbs 15:17: 

Better is a dinner of herbs where love is 
Than a stalled ox and hatred therewith. 

These are the three varieties distinguished by Lowth, and 
for practical purposes this classification may be sufficient ; 
however, one other may be mentioned : 4. Climactic Parallel- 
ism. Here the first line is incomplete; the second line takes 
up words from it and then completes the thought; for ex- 
ample, Psalm 29 : I : 

Ascribe unto Jehovah, O ye sons of the mighty, 
Ascribe unto Jehovah, glory and strength. 

h. Species of Poetic Composition. The three principal 
kinds of poetic composition are Epic, Dramatic, Lyric, 
t. Epic Poetry is descriptive, and is intended to be recited. 
It deals with external objects, of which it gives a narrative 
in poetic form; the events portrayed may be partly real and 
partly fictitious, or all fictitious. 2. Dramatic Poetry is con- 
cerned with the presentation of acts and events, and is in- 
tended to be acted. It makes its appeal to the eye as well 
as to the ear. There are two subdivisions of dramatic po- 
etry: tragedy and comedy. 3. Lyric Poetry, which is sub- 
jective. It sets forth the inward occurrences of the writer's 
own mind, his feelings and reflections, his joys and sorrows, 
cares and complaints, aspirations and despairs, etc. 

The Hebrews never created a verse-epic nor a drama in 
the sense of a poetic composition intended to be acted. As 
far as we know now, the Babylonians alone among the 



I 



THE DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE 103 

Semites have developed epic poetry. While there is no 
drama in the strict sense of the word in the Old Testament, 
the dramatic element is not altogether absent. The Book of 
Psalms, for example, offers many specimens of dramatic ar- 
rangement, as does also the Prophetic literature. In structure 
the Book of Job is of the nature of a drama, and may be 
termed a dramatic poem; the Song of Songs also is inter- 
preted by many as a dramatic poem. The Hebrew poets seem 
to have been content with cultivating lyric poetry in all its 
varieties. In lyric poetry proper the poet gives expression to 
his emotions and subjective experiences, or reproduces in 
words the impressions which nature and history have made 
upon him. By the side of this lyric poetry proper the Old 
Testament contains a species of poetry that may be called 
thought lyric, also called gnomic poetry. In this kind of 
poetry the author does not express so much his emotions and 
experiences as his thoughts and observations on human life 
and society, or generalizations concerning conduct and char- 
acter. Only very few specimens of secular gnomic poetry are 
preserved; the finest of these is the fable of Jotham, in 
Judges 9 : 8-15. Its religious and ethical forms are found in 
the so-called wisdom literature, especially in the Book of 
Proverbs, which contains fables, parables, proverbs, riddles, 
moral and political maxims, satires, philosophic and specu- 
lative sentences. 

2. The Devotional Books of the Old Testament. In this 
chapter the term "devotional'* is used of those poetic compo- 
sitions which are intended to portray the inner religious ex- 
periences and emotions of the authors, created and fostered 
by their close and intimate fellowship with Jehovah. These 
expressions are cast in the form of lyric poetry. This form 
of poetry is scattered through the various historical and pro- 
phetic books. A small percentage of it is secular in the sense 
that it centers around secular themes, but in view of the fact 
that the entire Old Testament is pre-eminently a book of re- 
ligion, it is only natural that practically all the poetry in it 



I04 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

should be of a religious nature. In addition to the widely 
scattered poems, the Old Testament contains two books con- 
sisting entirely of religious lyrics, which may be called in a 
narrower sense books of devotion, namely, the Books of Lam- 
entations and Psalms. 

a. The Book of Lamentations. In the English Old Testa- 
ment, Lamentations is placed after Jeremiah, because tradi- 
tion considers him the author of the book. In the Hebrew 
Bible it belongs to the third division, the writings ; and it is 
one of the five Megilloth, or Rolls, which were read publicly 
in the synagogues at certain sacred seasons. Lamentations on 
the ninth day of the month Ab, the day on which the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem was commemorated. The contents make it 
evident that the book originated soon after the destruction 
of the Holy City, while the sufferings were still fresh in the 
minds of the people. 

The book consists of five independent poems, all dealing 
with a common theme, namely, the calamities that befell the 
people of Judah and Jerusalem during the siege and subse- 
quent capture of the city in 586 B. C. The description of the 
woes of the people is interspersed with confessions of guilt, 
exhortations to repentance, and supplication for the return 
of the divine favor. Four of the poems are arranged as 
alphabetic acrostics. "Exquisite," says Driver, "as is the 
pathos which breathes in the poetry of these dirges, they are 
thus, it appears, constructed with conscious art : they are not 
the unstudied effusions of natural emotion, they are care- 
fully elaborated poems, in which no aspect of the common 
grief is unremembered, and in which every trait which might 
stir a chord of sorrow or regret is brought together for the 
purpose of completing the picture of woe." 

h. The Book of Psalms and its Place in the Life of De- 
votion. The Book of Psalms consists of one hundred and 
fifty sacred lyrics, which are arranged in five books : I, i — 
41; II, 42—72; III, 73—89; IV, 90—106; V, 107—150. 
This fivefold division was introduced to make the Psalter, 



THE DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE 105 

which was the temple hymnal, correspond to the Pentateuch, 
the sacred Law-book. Manifold were the moods and expe- 
riences of the authors of the Psalms, but there is one bond 
which unites them all into one living unity, namely, a sublime 
faith in Jehovah, the God of Israel. This variety on the one 
hand, and unity on the other, are the qualities which have 
given to the book such unique place in the religious life of 
the individual and of the Church. With full justice says 
Perowne: "No single book of Scripture, not even the New 
Testament, has perhaps, ever taken such hold on the heart 
of Christendom. None, if we dare judge, unless it be the 
Gospels, has had so large an influence in molding the affec- 
tions, sustaining the hopes, purifying the faith of believers. 
With its words, rather than their own, they have come before 
God. In these they have uttered their desires, their fears, 
their confessions, their aspirations, their sorrows, their joys, 
their thanksgivings. By these their devotion has been kindled 
and their hearts comforted. The Psalter has been in the 
truest sense the prayer-book of both Jews and Christians." 

c. The Booh of Psalms and the Rest of the Old Testa- 
ment. The Book of Psalms has very fittingly been called the 
heart of the Old Testament, or even of the entire Bible. In- 
deed, the Psalms sustain a very intimate relation to the en- 
tire Old Testament. All the divine manifestations which re- 
ceive a more objective treatment in other parts of the Old 
Testament are here viewed subjectively in their bearing and 
effect upon the personal experience of the author or of those 
in whose name he speaks. The moral law and the ritual as 
a means of approaching God are glorified, the lessons of his- 
tory are appropriated, and the passion for truth and right- 
eousness as preached by the prophets finds vivid expression 
in the words of the psalmists. There are also some psalms 
which reflect the influence of the wisdom movement, both in 
its practical and speculative aspects. 

d. Classification of the Psalms According to Subject Mat- 
ter. A classification of the Psalms according to their con- 



io6 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

tents is almost impossible, because individual psalms very 
frequently present a mixed character. "We find rapture 
blend with pleading, or the night of sorrow lose itself in the 
morning of joy, mood succeeding mood, and experience pass- 
ing into experience more rapidly than the sunshine and rain 
that blend and pass in the sweet confusion of an April morn- 
ing. The rehearsal of God's mighty acts, which one genera- 
tion tells to another, suddenly breaks away into penitence 
for national sin, or an outburst of thanksgiving which abun- 
dantly utters the memory of His great goodness." But 
though recognizing the difficulty of the task and the fact that 
any classification will be more or less open to criticism, a 
classification along broad lines may be suggestive. Where 
the classification is uncertain, a psalm may be mentioned in 
more than one group. 

I. Psalms Which Do Not Reflect a Specific Historical 
Situation. 

(i) Hymns in praise of God, as Creator, Governor, and 
Protector of the world and His people, suggested by the con- 
templation of His manifestations in nature, history, and per- 
sonal experience. For example: Psalm 8, God's glory mani- 
fested in the creation of man; 19: 1-6, in the heavens; 29, in 
the thunderstorm; 33, in His moral attributes, in creation, 
in His government, in His choice of Israel. To the same 
group belong z^y 65, 66, y6, 92, 103, 104, 107, 145—147. 
Similar in tone are Psalm 24:7-10; 47, 6y, 93, 96 — 100, 11 1, 
113, 115, 117, 118, 134 — 136, 148 — 150; but these differ from 
the preceding in that they contain invocations of a liturgical 
character. 

(2) Experiences; that is. Psalms embodying the religious 
emotions arising from the poet's intimate fellowship with 
Jehovah, expressing confidence, resignation, spiritual yearn- 
ings, joy in God's presence, etc. : 16, 23, 26, 27, 42, 43, 62, 
63, 84, 91, 121, 127, 128, 130, 131, 133, 138, 139. Here may 



THE DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE 107 

be mentioned also the eulogies of the law of Jehovah, 
19:7-14; 119. In some psalms promises of confidence in 
the future are added to the expressions descriptive of present 
emotions; in others, petitions that Jehovah will judge the 
wicked who are trying to injure the psalmist: 9, 10, 11, 12, 
14, 52, 53, 58, 64, 7Sy 82, 94. 

(3) Reflections: (i) On God's moral government of the 
world — He blesses the righteous and punishes the wicked: 

I, 34» 37 y 90> 112. (2) The same with a marked didactic 
purpose; the author seeks to harmonize his belief in God's 
moral government of the world with the apparent inequalities 
of life: 49, 7Z' (3) On the character of the service and 
conduct acceptable to God: 15, 24:1-6; 2>^y 50. 

II. Psalms Reflecting a Specific Historical Situation. 

(i) Personal Psalms; that is, psalms reflecting the personal 
condition of the psalmist, either as an individual or as a rep- 
resentative of the pious community, (i) Petitions for help 
in sickness, persecution, or other trouble, or for forgiveness 
of sin, often accompanied by expressions of assurance that 
the prayer will be answered: 3 — 7, 13, 17, 22, 25, 27, 2%, 
31, 35, 38, 39, 40:11-17; 41, 51, 54—57, 59, 61, 69, 70, 71, 
yy, 86, 88, 109, 120, 140 — 142. (2) Thanksgiving for deliver- 
ance wrought: 18, 30, 40:1-10; 116, 144. 

(2) National Psalms ; that is, psalms reflecting conditions 
in the Holy City, or the religious community, or the nation, 
(i) Complaints of national oppression or disaster: 44, 60, 
74, 79, 80, 83, 85, 94, 102, 123, 137. (2) Thanksgivings 
for mercies already received or promised: 46 — 48, 60, 66, 
68, y6, 107, 108, 114, 124 — 126, 129. With special refer- 
ence to Zion: 87, 122. (3) Retrospect of the national his- 
tory, with special reference to the lessons deducible from 
it: 78, 81, 95, 105, 106. 

(3) Royal Psalms; that is, psalms centering around an 



io8 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

historical or ideal ruler, (i) Thanksgiving, good wishes, and 
promises: 2, i8, 20, 21, 45, 72, no, 132. (2) Prayers for 

his preservation, etc. : 89, loi. 

3, Date and Authorship of the Psalms. The question of 
date and authorship is not as important in the case of the 
Psalms as it is in the case of the prophetic books and other 
Old Testament writings. A psalm remains a psalm, and may- 
take the reader into the presence of God, no matter by whom 
and under what circumstances it was written. In the words 
of Davison: "The universality and, if we may say so, the 
timelessness of the Psalter are amongst its prominent char- 
acteristics. The personal elements which the Psalms contain 
are soon lost in the impersonal, the finite in the infinite. The 
singer seldom lingers long amidst the streets of the city, 
within the limits of a single nation or country, among the 
fields and the homesteads; he soon wings his flight into the 
upper air, from whence the whole familiar landscape dwin- 
dles to a mere speck. The psalmist, of all men, is alone 
with God and his own soul." Nevertheless the questions of 
date and authorship are of interest, and their determination 
is of value. In the first place, some of the Psalms are the 
outgrowth of definite historical situations. If so, they must 
remain more or less unintelligible unless the historical back- 
ground can be determined. Moreover, though all the Psalms 
breathe the spirit of a living faith in God, they do show 
differences in religious and ethical conception. The proper 
use of the Psalms is dependent upon a right understanding 
of the different stages of religious conceptions reflected in 
the several psalms ; but this in turn depends upon fixing, 
approximately at least, the dates of the psalms. Unfortu- 
nately all attempts to fix the dates of the psalms have failed 
to lead to certain results; and it is hardly wise to say more 
than that the Psalms originated during the period beginning 
with David and ending with the Maccabean struggles about 
150 B. C. The following are named as authors in the psalm 
titles, which, however, are not integral parts of the Psalms: 



THE DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE 109 

1. Moses (90) I 

2. David (3-9, 11-32, 34-41, 51-65, 68-70, 86, 

loi, 103, 108-110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138- 

145) 73 

3. Solomon (^^2, 127) 2 

4. Asaph (50, TZ-'^i) 12 

5. Sons of Korah (42, 44-49, 84, 85, 87, 88) .... 11 

6. Ethan the Ezrahite (89) i 

7. Heman, the Ezrahite (88, also ascribed to the 

Sons of Korah) 

Total 100 

4. The Compilation of the Psalter. The Psalter has 
rightly been called the hymn-book of the second temple. 
Whatever differences may exist between it and a modern 
hymnal — and there are many, since the Psalter contains many 
compositions which can in no sense be called hymns — the 
history of the Psalter is similar to that of a modern hymnal. 
"A true hymn-book," says Davison, "is not made, it grows." 
In a similar manner the Psalter has reached its present form 
as the result of a process of growth. It would seem that 
individual psalms were brought together into small collec- 
tions; these small collections came to be combined into three 
larger collections, which were united into one book. Then, 
at a later time, this book was divided, after the analogy of 
the Pentateuch, into five books, in which form the Psalter 
has come down to the present. 

Lesson Outline: 

Poetry of the Old Testament. 
Essential characteristics of Hebrew poetry. 
Kinds of poetic composition. 

Devotional books of the Old Testament : the Book of Lam- 
entations ; the Book of Psalms. 
Classification of the Psalms according to subject matter. 
Date and authorship of the Psalms. 

Bibliography : 

Davison, *'The Praises of Israel." 
Prothero, *'The Psalms in Human Life." 
Hastings, "One Volume Dictionary." 
Commentaries ; *'Psalms," Kirkpatrick. 



no THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Topics for Special Study: 

1. Titles and superscriptions of the Psalms. 

2. Principal religious teachings of the Psalms. 

3. The life of David as reflected in the Psalms. 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. Give examples of secular poems in the Old Testament. 

2. What are the essential characteristics of Hebrew poetry? 

3. Distinguish between the various forms of parallelism in 

Hebrew poetry. 

4. What is the chief form of poetic composition found in the 

Bible? 

5. Discuss the origin and contents of the Book of Lamenta- 

tions. 

6. What is the importance of Psalms to the religious life? 

7. What is the relation of the Psalms to the rest of the Old 

Testament ? 

8. Discuss the classification of the Psalms. 

9. What is to be said concerning the date and authorship of 

the Psalms? 



CHAPTER XI 

THE WISDOM LITERATURE OF THE OLD 
TESTAMENT 

1. Philosophy Among the Hebrews. The Wisdom Lit- 
erature of the Old Testament corresponds to the philosophic 
literature of other peoples. Philosophy, in the narrow sense, 
however, had no existence among the Hebrews, for a process 
of thinking free from presuppositions was unknown to them. 
Two fixed points were universally accepted by the Hebrew 
thinkers: (i) The existence of a personal God; (2) the 
reality of a divine revelation. Accordingly the primary aim 
of Hebrew philosophic thought was simply to penetrate 
deeper into the contents of these truths, to define them more 
clearl)', and to apply them to the daily life. 

While, therefore, in a strict sense, we can not speak of 
philosophic literature in the Old Testament, the latter con- 
tains a kind of literature which presents at least attempts at 
philosophizing, and which is clearly distinguished from other 
kinds of literature. This literature includes three of the 
canonical books : Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and, according 
to one interpretation, the Song of Songs. To it belong also 
a number of psalms and parts of other Old Testament books. 

2. The Aim and Function of the Wise Men. The origin 
of the wisdom literature may be traced in the last analysis 
to human need and the condescension of God to accommo- 
date Himself to the peculiarities of men in His attempt to 
reach their hearts and consciences. Some men may be 
reached by an authoritative command in the name of one 
in whom they have confidence. Others are reached by way 

III 



112 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

of their aesthetic sensibihties through the ritual. Personal ex- 
perierxe may rouse the dormant emotions of still others. But 
there always have been and still are those whose intellect 
must be carried, in part at least, before appeals to the heart 
and conscience can prove effective. Under the providence of 
God these different ways of approach were tried under the 
Old Testament dispensation. The prophet came with the 
authoritative "Thus saith Jehovah;" it was the priesfs duty 
to make ritual's appeal effective; the psalmist gave expres- 
sion to personal experience; and the wise man made his 
appeal to the intellect. Certainly, at times a prophet might 
assume the role of a priest, or vice versa, or the psalmist 
might fall into the strain of the wise man, or other inter- 
changes of similar character might take place; nevertheless 
certain Old Testament references (for example, Jer. i8:i8) 
make it clear that the wise men formed a distinct class of 
religious workers in Israel during a long period. 

By the side of the wise men whose sayings and writings 
have been considered worthy of a place in the canon, there 
was a class of "false" wise men, corresponding to the false 
prophets and faithless priests against whom the prophets 
hurl such severe denunciations. While information concern- 
ing this class of men is not very extensive, we may assume 
that there were two kinds of false wise men as there were 
two kinds of false prophets: (i) The mercenary wise men, 
who called evil good and good evil from selfish motives. If 
it was to their interest to twist and pervert the moral pre- 
cepts commonly recognized as true, they did not hesitate to 
do it. (2) The political wise men. These may have been 
patriotic, conscientious, and able men, but they lacked spir- 
itual vision, and their advice was wholly determined by- 
narrow, worldly, and political considerations. 

3. Growth of the Wisdom Movement. The wisdom 
movement proper, as illustrated in the Old Testament, found 
expression at first in very simple form. The wise men ac- 
cepted the great religious truths proclaimed by the prophets; 



THE WISDOM LITERATURE 113 

it was their business to apply them to the details of every- 
day life and instruct their contemporaries in that application. 
They did an important and necessary work; they pointed out 
constantly and persistently that religion can not be separated 
from the daily life. But the wise men were dealing with 
persons who, as far as the great mass of them was concerned, 
had hardly gone beyond the childhood stage in things re- 
ligious and ethical; hence they must put the most profound 
truths in the simplest possible form. They must abstain, as 
far as possible, from all speculation, and confine themselves 
to simple, practical precepts which would appeal to the ordi- 
nary practical common sense of the hearer. Certainly, in 
time they would be compelled to rise above simple precepts 
and try to solve some of the more perplexing problems of 
life; on the other hand, there would always be a demand for 
the more simple sayings of these moral guides. The Old 
Testament contains specimens of these different productions 
of wisdom activity. The Book of Proverbs is a collection 
of the more simple, practical precepts, while the Books of 
Job and Ecclesiastes illustrate speculative wisdom. 

a. Contents of the Book of Proverbs. The Book of Prov- 
erbs consists of eight parts, of unequal length, with a gen- 
eral heading; seven of these make up the collection of prov- 
erbs; the other, the first, appears to be prefixed as a suitable 
introduction. The heading is 1:1-6: The nature and object 
of proverbial wisdom. I. Chapter i : 7 — 9 : 18. Introduc- 
tion: The Praise of Wisdom. The writer, speaking like a 
father, warns his son or disciple against the temptations and 
dangers to which he will be exposed, invites him affection- 
ately to listen to his precepts, and commends to him the 
claims of wisdom to be his guide and friend. II. Chapter 
10 : I — 22 : 16. Proverbs of Solomon. A collection of mis- 
cellaneous aphorisms on life and conduct. It contains 
some fine religious proverbs, but the generalizations are 
mostly drawn from secular life, and describe the fortune 
which may be expected to attend particular lines of conduct 
8 



114 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

or t3-pes of character. III. Chapter 22:17 — 24:22. The 
Words of the Wise. In contents this collection is similar to 
the preceding; it differs, however, in form; for it is "less 
a collection of individual proverbs than a body of maxims, 
in which proverbs are interwoven, addressed with a practical 
aim to an individual and worked up usually into a more or 
less consecutive argument.'* Its tone, also, is more hortatory 
than that of the preceding section. IV. Chapter 24 : 23-34, 
which has the title, "These are also sayings of the wise.*' 
An appendix to the preceding, displaying similar variety of 
form. V. Chapter 25 : 1—29 : 27. Has the title, "These are 
also proverbs of Solomon, which the men of Hezekiah, king 
of Judah, copied out." Meant as an appendix to Section II, 
but shows some differences. On the whole, the proverbs 
appear to spring from a changed state of society. Religious 
proverbs are rare. VI. Chapter 30:1-33. "The words of 
Agur, son of Jakeh, the oracle." A series of epigrams, from 
two to ten lines each. In verses i to 9 the divine transcend- 
ence is the subject. Verses 10 to 33 consist of nine groups 
of proverbs, each of which describes some quality or charac- 
ter in terms of either warning or commendation. VII. Chap- 
ter 31: 1-9. "The words of Lemuel, a king; the oracle which 
his mother taught him." A series of maxims addressed to 
Lemuel by his mother, warning him against sensuality and 
immoderate indulgence in wine, and exhorting him to relieve 
the necessities and defend the cause of the poor. VIII. Chap- 
ter 31 : 10-31. An alphabetic acrostic, without any title. The 
description of a capable and virtuous housewife. 

The date of the separate proverbs, and the compilation of 
these into collections, and finally into the present Book of 
Proverbs, is not easily determined. The process may have 
been similar to that in which the Psalter was formed. In 
general it may be said that the Proverbs originated during 
the period beginning with Solomon and ending with the 
Maccabean uprising. The period of compilation lies prob- 
ably between about 350 and 150 B. C. 



THE WISDOM LITERATURE 115 

b. Permanent Value of the Book of Proverbs. There are 
two phases of religion : the one internal, the religious expe- 
rience; the other external, the religious life. The two go 
together, though at times the one, at times the other, may 
receive special emphasis. The authors of the Proverbs em- 
phasize chiefly the latter. They teach the most difficult of 
all lessons : how to practice religion, how to fulfill the duties 
and overcome the temptations of every-day life. But these 
wise men rested their practical teaching upon a religious 
basis. Underneath all their teaching there is a firm belief 
in the existence of a righteous God and the reality of His 
rule over the world, as also in the other great religious 
verities taught by the prophets. Far from disregarding re- 
ligion, the writers of the Proverbs sought to make it the 
controlling motive of life and conduct. A profound religious 
spirit pervades the whole book; but in addition there are 
many passages (for example, 3:5-7; 16:3, 6, 9; or 23:17) 
which give definite expression to the lofty religious concep- 
tions of the wise men. Nevertheless, as is natural in view 
of the purpose of the wise men, greater stress is laid upon 
ethics, the practice of religion. Nothing and no relation of 
life seems to have escaped the attention of the writers. Pre- 
cepts are given concerning ordinary every-day conduct (for 
example, 10:4; 11:28; 12:10; 14:3), the relations of men 
to their fellows (11: i; 14:21; 17:5), domestic relations and 
happiness (6:20-22; 18:22; 31:10-31), national life and the 
proper attitude toward the government (14:34, 35; 16: 
12-15), and other relations and interests of life. The per- 
manent value of the book is suggested in these words of 
Davison: "For the writers of Proverbs religion means good 
sense, religion means mastery of affairs, religion means 
strength and manliness and success, religion means a well- 
furnished intellect employing the best means to accomplish 
the highest ends. There is a healthy, vigorous tone about 
this kind of teaching which is never out of date, but which, 
human nature being what it is, is only too apt to disappear, 



ii6 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

in the actual presentation of religion in the Church on 
earth.'^ 

4, Speculative Wisdom in the Old Testament. From 
simple practical precepts the wise men rose to speculation. 
Their speculative philosophy is theistic, for it starts from the 
presupposition that there is a personal God. Some traces 
of speculation are found in the Book of Proverbs, especially 
in the first nine chapters. It is seen also in some of the 
historical books, for example, in the Book of Judges, which 
furnishes a philosophy of the history of the period of the 
Judges in the light of a firm belief in Jehovah. Speculative 
philosophy appears also in the prophetic literature; for ex- 
ample, Amos 3 : 6, "Shall calamity befall a city, and Jehovah 
hath not done it?" The same prophet indulges in specula- 
tion when he explains the natural phenomena of famine, 
drought, blasting and mildew, and others, as punishments 
for Israel's disobedience (4:6-11). Of similar character is 
Isaiah 9:8-21. Other specimens of well-sustained specula- 
tion are offered by Habakkuk i : i — 2 : 5 and Malachi 2:17 
— 4 : 3, and other prophetic books show traces of it. The 
wisdom movement, both in its practical and speculative as- 
pects, is reflected also in some of the psalms. The most im- 
portant of these are i, 8, 15, 19, 29, z^j, 49, 50, ^z, 90, 92, 
103, 104, 107, 139, 147, 148. Of the wisdom books proper, 
two are entirely given up to speculation: Job and Ecclesi- 
astes. The former deals with the perplexing problem of 
evil and suffering, the latter with the perplexities of life in 
general. 

5. The Origin of the Book of Job. The Book of Job 
recounts how Job, a man of exemplary piety, was overtaken 
by an unprecedented series of calamities, and it reports the 
debate between Job and other speakers to which the occa- 
sion is supposed to have given rise. The experiences of the 
perfect Job raised the perplexing question. How can the suf- 
fering of a righteous man be harmonized with the belief in 
a holy and just God? The popular view, reflected in the 



THE WISDOM LITERATURE 117 

greater portion of the Old Testament, was that suffering 
was always a punishment for sin, prosperity a reward for 
piety. Such belief seemed in accord with the righteousness 
of Jehovah. Undoubtedly exceptions to the rule might be 
noted, but as long as the individual was looked upon simply 
as an atom in the national unit, the apparent inequalities in 
the fortunes of individuals would not constitute a pressing 
problem. When, however, especially through the teaching of 
Jeremiah and Ezekiel, the individual received proper recog- 
nition, an experience like that of Job was bound to create 
difficulties, for the suffering of a righteous man would seem 
to point to unfairness on the part of God. That this per- 
plexity was felt is seen from allusions in the prophetic books. 
At last the time came when a wise man in Israel sought to 
solve the problem in the light of the religious knowledge he 
possessed. He took as the basis of his discussion the ex- 
perience of Job, the tradition of which he may have found 
a popular possession. This material he arranged in the form 
of a drama, in which different speakers are introduced, each 
suggesting his own solution of the problem. The author of 
the book is not known, and its date is a matter of dispute; 
however, a date in the post-exilic period seems to be the 
most probable. 

a. Contents of the Book of Job. The Book of Job falls 
naturally into five parts of unequal length : I. Chapters i, 2. 
The Prologue (written in prose). The adversary is per- 
mitted by God to test Job*s righteousness by depriving him 
of his wealth and children, and afflicting him with a loath- 
some disease. Job remains faithful. His three friends come 
to comfort him. II. Chapters 3 — 31. Debate between Job 
and his friends. Moved by the unspoken sympathy of his 
friends. Job breaks forth in a passionate cry, cursing the day 
of his birth and praying for death (3). This outburst of 
feeling gives occasion to his friends to speak, and so opens 
the debate. There are three cycles of speeches (4 — 14; 
15 — ^21; 22 — 31): in the first two the three friends of 



ii8 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Job speak, and Job replies to each; in the third Zophar is 
absent, but Job speaks three times. III. Chapters 32 — s?- 
The speeches of Elihu. EHhu, a young man who is repre- 
sented as a bystander, has listened to the debate and, vexed 
with both Job and his friends, steps forward to set both 
right. IV. Chapters 38 : i — 42 : 6. The speeches of Jehovah, 
and Job's submission. When Elihu refrains from speaking, 
Jehovah intervenes and answers Job out of the whirlwind. 
The answer consists of two parts, each followed by a few 
words from Job. The aim of Jehovah's speeches is to bring 
Job, who has shown himself impatient, back into a right 
attitude of mind toward God. This is accomplished, for he 
admits the folly of his doubts and solemxuly retracts his hasty 
and ill-considered words. V. Chapter 42 : 7-17. The epi- 
logue. When Job is restored to a right attitude of mind he 
receives the divine commendation, while the friends are con- 
demned for their foolish utterances. Then Job is blessed 
with prosperity twice as great as he enjoyed before. 

b. The Problem of the Book of Job and Its Solution. The 
problem discussed by the author of the Book of Job is : How 
can the sufferings of a righteous man be harmonized with a 
belief in a holy and righteous God? Various solutions of 
this problem are suggested in different parts of the book: 
I. The solution of the prologue — Suffering is a test of char- 
acter. 2. The solution of the friends — Suffering is always 
punishment for sin. 3. The solution of Job — Job struggles 
long and persistently with the problem ; a few times he seems 
to have a glimpse of a possible straightening-out of the pres- 
ent inequalities in an after life, but it is only a glimpse; he 
always sinks back to a feeling of uncertainty and perplexity. 
His general attitude is that there must be something out of 
gear in the world, for the righteousness of God can not be 
discerned as things are going now. 4. The solution of 
Elihu — Elihu agrees with the friends that suffering is closely 
connected with sin ; but he emphasizes more than they the dis- 
ciplinary purpose of suffering, which, he points out, is the 



THE WISDOM LITERATURE 119 

voice of God warning men to return to God. 5. The solution 
of Jehovah — The whole universe is an unfathomable mystery, 
in which the evil is no more perplexing than the good. In 
the presence of all mysteries the proper attitude is one of 
humble submission. 6. The solution of the epilogue — Returns 
to the opinion of the friends, for it teaches that righteousness 
will sooner or later be rewarded with prosperity even in this 
world. 

The author nowhere states which of these conclusions he 
accepts as true; indeed, the book leaves the impression that 
the author is conscious of his inability to present an entirely 
satisfactory solution. One thing alone seems certain, that 
he means to reject most emphatically the traditional view 
defended by the friends, that suffering must always be ex- 
plained as punishment for sin. The Book of Job presents 
the best that the human mind can do with a problem which 
has perplexed men throughout the ages; and it shows at 
the same time that the only solution possible is a solution 
of faith, with a lofty conception of God and a vision of life 
broad enough to include eternity, when the apparent inequali- 
ties of this life may be adjusted by a loving and righteous 
God. 

6. Contents of the Book of Ecclesiastes. The Book of 
Ecclesiastes consists of a prologue, an epilogue, and the body 
of the book in four parts. I. Chapter i : i-ii. The Prologue. 
Statement of the problem: On the assumption that there is 
no hereafter and that man's deepest longings must be satis- 
fied here, the author declares all human efforts in that di- 
rection in vain. 11. Chapter i : 12 — 12 : 8. Proof of this 
contention. (i) Chapter 1:12 — 2:26. Wisdom, pleasure, 
and riches are vanity. (2) Chapters 3 : i — 5 : 19. Every- 
thing is foreordained; death is preferable to a life that is 
spent in vain struggle with the foreordained nature of things. 
Nothing is left but to make the best of the few fleeting years 
and enjoy them. (3) Chapters 6:1 — 8:15. Wealth can 
not overrule providence. Common sense is staggered when 



I20 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

it beholds the inequalities of life. There is no solution; eat, 
drink, and be merry. (4) Chapters 8:16 — 12:8. Summing 
up of the author's findings : "Vanity of vanities, saith the 
preacher; all is vanity." Therefore let the young man re- 
joice in his youth, yet not so as to forget his responsibility 
to his Maker. III. Chapter 12 : 9-14. The Epilogue — the 
author's conclusion: (i) Verses 9, 10. The aim of the wise 
man in committing his meditations to writing has been to 
communicate his wisdom to others. (2) Verses 11, 12. The 
reader is urged to heed the sayings of the wise man and be 
content with the teaching of the book. (3) Verses 13, 14. 
The one supreme care of man: Fear God and keep His com- 
mandments. 

The Book of Ecclesiastes is one of the latest books in the 
Old Testament canon. The ascription to Solomon is, there- 
fore, a literary device, which the author is not careful to 
maintain. 

Significance of Ecclesiastes. The author of the Book 
of Ecclesiastes has passed through many disappointments, 
and his spirit has grown somewhat skeptical and pessimistic. 
Ever3^hing has proved vanity: riches, pleasure, honor, even 
the search for wisdom; and he is not sure concerning his 
destiny after death. But over against his experiences in life 
there is a faith in God who governs the world. The book, 
which portrays the struggle between experience and faith, 
has aptly been called "a cry for light.'* The author does not 
see the light clearly, though here and there he may have a 
glimpse of it. The real perplexity is due to the fact that 
the author's horizon is bounded by the grave. In this life 
he sees no hope, therefore he looks with longing for a pos- 
sible reckoning in an after life; but it remains a hope and 
cry, it never grows into a conviction. The more significant is 
the retention of his faith in God. He is conscious of a moral 
order in the world, though its operation is often frustrated; 
he is aware of cases in which the God-fearing man had an 
advantage over others. Hence, with all his uncertainty and 



THE WISDOM LITERATURE 121 

doubt, he holds that it is his duty and the duty of every 
one else, to fear God and keep His commandments; God 
somehow will care for the mysteries and perplexities of 
life. 

7. Different Interpretations of the Song of Songs. The 
Song of Songs, also called Song of Solomon, owes its place 
in the canon of Sacred Scripture to the allegorical interpre- 
tation given to it from the earliest times. The Jews inter- 
preted it as picturing the close relation existing between 
Jehovah and Israel; the Christians, as picturing the intimate 
fellowship between Christ and His bride, the Church. At 
present it is quite generally held that this interpretation 
does not do justice to the primary purpose of the book; but 
as to its original purpose two different views are held. Ac- 
cording to both interpretations the subject of the book is 
love, human love; the differences of opinion are with refer- 
ence to the manner in which the subject is treated. Some 
think that the book is simply a collection of love or wedding 
songs, all independent of one another. Others feel that there 
are too many evidences of real unity in the book to permit 
this interpretation; they see in the book a didactic drama or 
melodrama, the aim of the author being the glorification of 
true human love. 

The drama centers around three principal characters : 
Solomon, the Shunammite maiden, and her shepherd lover. 
The book relates how the maiden, surprised by the king and 
his train, was brought to the palace in Jerusalem, where the 
king hoped to win her affections and to induce her to ex- 
change her rustic home for the enjoyment and honor the 
court life affords. She has, however, already pledged her 
heart to a young shepherd; and the admiration and blandish- 
ments which the king lavishes upon her are powerless to 
make her forget him. In the end she is permitted to return 
to her mountain home, where at the close of the poem the 
lovers appear hand in hand and express, in warm, glowing 
words, the superiority of genuine spontaneous affection. 



122 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

The Aim of the Song of Songs. To indicate the aim 
of the author I can do no better than quote at some length 
from Professor Rothstein: "The real aim of the Song of 
Songs," says he, "is to glorify true love, and, more spe- 
cifically, true betrothed love, which remains steadfast even 
in the most dangerous and most seductive situations. The 
author, as we may perhaps assume with certainty, found the 
material for his work in the story of Abishag of Shunem 
(i Kings I, 2). She remained true to the beloved of her 
heart, she steadily repelled all the advances of Solomon, into 
whose harem she had been brought, and finally she tri- 
umphed, was conducted home, and restored to her lover per- 
fectly pure. The poem makes two presuppositions — one be- 
ing that the Shunammite's heart belonged to a youth in her 
own home, and the other that, meanwhile, against her will, 
she had been brought into the royal apartments. The dra- 
matical exposition commences at the time when the first 
meeting of the king with the maiden is close at hand, and 
actually takes place. The dialogue between the Shunam- 
mite and the daughters of Jerusalem (the wives and maidens 
belonging to the royal harem) in i : 2-8 serves to pave the 
way, in true dramatic fashion, for that meeting, and at the 
same time to explain the true inward disposition of the 
Shunammite toward the approaching royal suitor, which the 
poet henceforward makes her retain without wavering. If, 
now, we would understand aright the further structure of 
the poem, it must be observed that the scheme chosen by the 
author for the poetical disposition of his material is based 
upon the different stages in the courtship and the marriage 
festivities, down to the moment when alone the real victory 
of loyal love, the preservation of bridely honor in the face 
of all temptations and assaults, was evidenced, and could be 
evidenced, namely, the morning after the bridal night passed 
with the real lover." (Compare Deut. 22: I3ff.) 



THE WISDOM LITERATURE 



123 



Lesson Outline: 

Philosophy among the Hebrews. 

The aim and function of the Wise Men. 

The growth of the Wisdom movement. 

Contents of the Book of Proverbs. 

Permanent value of the book. 

Speculative wisdom in the Old Testament. 

The origin of the Book of Job. 

Outline, subject, and teaching of the Book of Job. 

Contents and significance of Ecclesiastes. 

Different interpretations and aim of the Song of Songs. 



Bibliography : 

Davison, "The Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament." 
Hastings, "One Volume Dictionary." 

Commentaries: "Job," Davidson; "Proverbs," Toy; "Eccle- 
siastes," Plumtre; "Song of Songs," Harper. 

Topics for Special Study: 

1. Scope and definition of the term "Wisdom." 

2. The sage and the prophet. 

3. The teachings of Wisdom and the teaching of Jesus. 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. Characterize Hebrew Wisdom. 

2. Discuss the purpose and method of the Wise. 

3. Outline the contents of the Book of Proverbs. 

4. What do the Proverbs principally deal with ? 

5. What was the next stage in the development of Wisdom 

beyond the simple proverb? 

6. What gave rise to the problem which forms the subject of 

the Book of Job ? 

7. The solutions of the problem proposed in the Book of Job. 

8. Discuss the view-point of the author of Ecclesiastes. 

9. Give the different interpretations of the Song of Songs. 
10. What is the aim of the book? 



CHAPTER XII 

THE HEBREW PROPHETS TO THE CLOSE OF 
THE EIGHTH CENTURY B. C. 

1, The Nature and Function of Hebrew Prophecy. The 

Hebrew prophet was a divinely sent messenger, whose duty 
it was to make known the will and purpose of Jehovah to 
the chosen people (Amos 2>'-79 8- Compare Ex. 4: i6; 7:1). 
While the name prophet does not necessarily imply the idea 
of prediction, the latter is not excluded, for God might de- 
sire to make known His will concerning the past, the present, 
or the future; in the last case the utterance of the prophet 
must take the form of prediction. It should be noted, how- 
ever, that the predictive element is not the most important 
in prophecy, and the prophet was far more a forth-teller 
than a foreteller. 

2. Moses the First Great Prophet of Israel. The first 
great Hebrew prophet was Moses. We are accustomed to 
think of him as a law-giver and author ; but his chief glory is 
rather that he was the first and greatest prophet of the 
Old Testament dispensation. Moses did two things: (i) He 
organized the heterogeneous elements that came forth from 
Egypt into a national unity. (2) He gave to this unity a 
practical monotheism. In this we see the twofold activity 
common to all the prophets, national and religious, with the 
emphasis upon the latter, for the basis of the national union 
was the recognition of Jehovah as the one God of Israel. 
Certainly, in the beginning Moses had to do some things 
which at a later time were assigned to separate officials. In 

124 



I 



THE EIGHTH CENTURY PROPHETS 125 

reality Moses filled a fourfold office: (i) He was a prophet; 
(2) a priest; (3) a law-giver; (4) a political leader. As 
such he laid the foundation for the political, social, and re- 
ligious life of the Hebrews. 

3. From Moses to Elijah and Elisha. The records of the 
period of the Judges mention only two persons as occupying 
the prophetic office: Deborah, the prophetess (Judges 4:4), 
and an unnamed prophet (6:8); but toward the close of 
the period, during the Philistine crisis, the sons of the 
prophets appeared in great numbers, and under the leadership 
of Samuel they played an important part in the events cul- 
minating in the election of Saul as king over Israel. For a 
time the prophetic influence continued to make itself felt, 
but in time Saul, whose lot was cast with the political and 
military party rather than with the representatives of Je- 
hovah, gave evidence that he was unwilling to abide by the 
policy of the religious party. Samuel considered this a se- 
rious religious danger, and David, a man after God's own 
heart, who might be expected to follow the prophetic lead- 
ing, was anointed king. During the next few generations the 
prophets appear upon the scene but rarely, but Nathan 
(2 Sam. 12: iff; i Kings i:ii) and Gad (2 Sam. 24:iiff) 
are worthy successors of Samuel. The next political event 
of importance was the division of the kingdom, and again 
the prophets took an active interest. In accord with their 
general policy, they favored the division ( i Kings 1 1 : 29ff ; 
I2:22ff), because they were convinced that a continuation 
of the policy of Solomon would result in the loss of true 
religion, and they were willing to sacrifice the State, if only 
the religion of Jehovah could be saved. 

The hopes of the prophets were not fully realized, for 
the kings of the northern kingdom were by no means all 
ardent worshipers of Jehovah. In name He continued to be 
the God of Israel, but the conduct of the kings, who found 
ready imitators among the people, was not such as to allay 
the fears of the zealous Jehovah prophets. As a result, con- 



126 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

flicts between the political and religious parties broke out 
afresh, v/hich reached their culmination in the days of Ahab 
(about 875-853). Ahab married Jezebel, the daughter of the 
king of Tyre, an ardent worshiper of the Baal of Tyre. 
Since the king took little interest in Jehovah worship, she soon 
gained many concessions from him which gave a prominent 
place to her god Baal. The great mass of the people, seeing 
the indifference of the king, followed the example of her 
who represented to them by her enthusiasm and zeal the 
policy of the court, and so did the false prophets, who 
thought that their personal interests demanded loyalty to the 
ruling power. To permit the worship of another deity by 
the side of Jehovah was considered treason by the true 
prophets. The crisis called forth two great representatives 
of the God of Israel — Elijah and Elisha — who, each in his 
own way, boldly and fearlessly carried on the struggle, until 
they finally succeeded in driving the hated worship from Is- 
rael and the faithless dynasty from the throne. Once more 
the nation came to acnkowledge Jehovah as its one and only 
God. Succeeding prophets still found it necessary to coun- 
teract the tendency to apostatize from Jehovah, but their 
chief duty was to set in a clearer light the nature and char- 
acter of Jehovah and His purpose for Israel and mankind. 

4. The Literary Prophets and Their Approximate Dates. 
I. The eighth-century prophets, or the prophets of the As- 
syrian period: 

1. In Israel — Amos, about 755; Hosea, about 750-735. 

The kings of Israel during this period were Jero- 
boam II, Zechariah, Shallum, Menahem, Pekahiah, 
Pekah. 

2. In Judah — Isaiah, about 740-700; Micah, about 735 
to 700. 

The kings of Judah during this period were Uz- 
ziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah. 



The eighth century prophets 127 

n. The seventh-century prophets, or the prophets of the 
Chaldean period (all in Judah; the northern kingdom 
fell in 722/721): Jeremiah, about 626-586; Zephaniah, 
about 626; Nahum, about 608; Habakkuk, about 600. 

The kings of Judah were Josiah, Jehoahaz, Jehoi- 
akim, Jehoiachin, Zedekiah. 

HI. The prophets of the Exile: Ezekiel, 593-570; Obadiah, 
after 586; Isaiah, 4off. reflect the historical background 
of about 545 B. C. 

IV. The prophets after the Exile: Haggai, 520; Zechariah 
(the author of chapters 1—8), 520-518; MalacHi, about 
450; Joel, about 400; the author or authors of Zechariah 
9 — 14, after 350; Jonah, about 400-250; Daniel, about 
168 B. C 

5. The Task of the Eighth-Century Prophets. The early 
part of the eighth century was a period of extraordinary pros- 
perity for both Israel and Judah; but, as is frequently the 
case, the material prosperity brought great evils in its train. 
The prophetic writings of the period make it plain that Jeho- 
vah religion was threatened by two serious perils: (i) moral 
and religious corruption, due to a wrong conception of the 
character of Jehovah; (2) the successes of the Assyrians, 
which were to the great mass of people an evidence of the su- 
perior strength of the Assyrian deities, and might lead to a 
transfer of affection and homage from Jehovah to them. Either 
danger threatened the very life of Jehovah religion. All four 
eighth-century prophets were convinced that the only remedy 
was a right conception of the nature and character of their 
God; and this they proceeded to supply; (i) All emphasized 
the universality of the Divine sway, and declared that the suc- 
cesses of the Assyrians were not due to Jehovah's weakness, 
but to the people's sins, which compelled Jehovah to send 
judgment upon them, and this judgment was to be executed 
by the Assyrians. (2) They all sought to impress upon the 
people a more adequate conception of the character of Je- 



128 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

hovah, each emphasizing that phase of the divine character 
which he considered best adapted to his day and generation. 
Amos laid special stress upon the righteousness of Jehovah, 
Hosea upon His love, Isaiah upon His holiness and majesty, 
Micah upon the Divine judgments. 

a. The Prophet Amos and His Message. Amos was the 
first of the eighth-century prophets, in chronological order. 
He was not a prophet by education or profession (7: 14), but 
a herdsman and a "dresser of sycomore trees" (i: i; 7: 14). 
It was while following his daily occupation that the Divine 
call came to him to leave his home, Tekoa, in Judah, and 
preach to the northern kingdom, Israel. He left his flocks 
and sycomore groves and journeyed to Bethel, the religious 
center in the north. How long he remained there we do not 
know; 7: 10-17 narrates how the chief priest sought to silence 
him, but in vain; he repeated his message and, when his task 
was finished, returned to his home, where he may have writ- 
ten down his message or, at least, directed the writing. 

One need but read the Books of Amos and Hosea to un- 
derstand the desperate conditions confronting the prophet. 
The prosperity, luxury, and extravagance of the rich met the 
simple herdsman on every hand. The sanctuaries shared in 
the general prosperity; offerings and tithes were brought reg- 
ularly and in abundance; people crowded the holy places, and 
celebrated the sacred feasts with all possible pomp. A nation 
so prosperous and so zealous in the performance of its re- 
ligious obligations might well be called blessed. But the 
prophet was not deceived by the superficial prosperity ; he saw 
the dark side of the nation's life as well. Violence and rob- 
bery, oppression of the poor, dishonest trading, graft and 
bribery, were widespread; the corruption of the courts of 
justice was notorious; immoralities were practiced without 
shame; all humane feelings, even in women, seemed to be 
smothered. With this disregard of all human and divine law 
there went, strangely enough, a feeling of absolute security 
and self-righteousness. The great mass of people believed 



THE EIGHTH CENTURY PROPHETS 129 

that, in view of their painstaking observance of the external 
ceremonial, they had a claim upon the Divine favor and that 
Jehovah was bound to be with them and protect them from 
all harm. 

The message of Amos was to recall Israel from its apos- 
tasy to a life of righteousness and obedience to Jehovah. 
The Book of Amos falls naturally into three divisions: 

I. Chapters i and 2. The approaching judgment upon six 
non-Israelitish nations, upon Judah, and upon Israel. 

II. Chapters 3 — 6. A series of five discourses of warning 
and exhortation: (i) Condemnation of the ruling classes 
(3:1 — 4:3); (2) Israel's failure to understand the Divine 
judgments (4:4-13); (3) Address containing lamentations, 
exhortations, reproofs, and threats of ruin (5 : 1-17) ; (4) 
Darkness and despair of the day of Jehovah (5 : 18-27) ; 
(5) Woe upon the luxurious, the self-confident, and the proud 
(6:1-14). III. Chapters 7 — 9. Visions picturing the exe- 
cution of the judgment, with interludes: (i) Five visions, 
with explanatory remarks (7:1-9; 8: 1-14; 9: i-io) ; (2) The 
experiences of Amos at Bethel (7:10-17); (3) Promises of 
a brighter future (9:11-15). 

b. Teaching and Signiiicance of the Message of Amos, In 
the course of his addresses Amos emphasizes the following 
aspects of the nature and character of Jehovah: (i) Jehovah 
is the only true God; (2) He is a person; (3) He is all- 
powerful; (4) He is everywhere present; (5) He knows all 
things ; (6) He is merciful ; (7) above all else he insists that 
Jehovah is a righteous God, whose favor can be secured only 
by a life of righteousness. These truths Amos does not dis- 
cuss in an abstract manner, but in their practical bearing upon 
the past, present, and future history of Israel; but while he 
deals primarily with the historical Israel of his age, he gives 
expression to several religious and moral truths that are of 
permanent significance. Of these the more important are: 
(i) Justice between man and man is one of the divine foun- 
dations of society; (2) Privilege implies responsibility; (3) 
9 



I30 



THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 



Failure to recognize responsibility will surely bring punish- 
ment; (4) Nations and, by analogy, individuals are bound to 
live up to the measure of light and knowledge granted to 
them; (5) The most elaborate worship is but an insult to 
God when offered by those who have no mind to conform 
to His demands. 

c. The Prophet Rosea and His Message. A few years 
after the withdrawal of Amos from Israel a new prophet 
arose to continue his work, namely, Hosea. Meanwhile the 
religious, moral, and social evils had become more aggra- 
vated; and during the latter part of his ministry the political 
situation became worse and worse. After the death of Jero- 
boam II, about 741, a period of anarchy and lawlessness en- 
sued, which culminated in the fall of the northern kingdom 
in 722/721. Hosea had one important advantage over his 
predecessor. Amos was a native of Judah, sent to the north- 
ern kingdom on a temporary mission; Hosea was a citizen of 
the north, bound by a sympathetic patriotism to the kingdom 
whose destruction he was commissioned to predict. 

The Book of Hosea contains the substance of the prophet's 
earnest and persistent appeals by which he sought to bring 
the faithless nation back to its divine Master. It falls nat- 
urally into two well-marked divisions: chapters i — 3 and 
4 — 14. I. Chapters i — 3. The prophet's marriage, and the 
application of the story: Jehovah's love and Israel's faithless- 
ness. 11. Chapters 4 — 14. Hosea's prophetic discourses; 
(i) Awful condition of the people, due to the lack of knowl- 
edge of Jehovah, for which lack the priests are responsible 
(4:1-19); (2) The utter corruption of Israel—the inevitable 
doom (5:1 — 8:14); (3) The present rejoicing contrasted 
with the despair of the Exile (9: 1-9) ; (4) A series of retro- 
spects, showing the utter corruption of Israel (9 : 10 — 
11: 11); (5) A new series of indictments (11:12 — 12:14); 
(6) Israel's glory turned to shame (13:1-16); (7) Israel's 
repentance — God's pardon (14: 1-8) ; followed by an exhorta- 
tion to study the Book of Hosea (9). 



THE EIGHTH CENTURY PROPHETS 13^ 

d. The Teaching of Hosea. The message of Hosea was 
very comprehensive, touching upon the social and political 
as well as upon the moral and religious situation, and yet the 
principles underlying his discourses are few and easily dis- 
cerned. Fundamental is his conception of the nature and char- 
acter of Jehovah, in which he agrees essentially with Amos; 
only he lays much greater stress than the latter upon the 
love of Jehovah ; indeed, the conviction that God is love colors 
all his teaching. Israel, the wife of Jehovah, has proved 
faithless, but through His love He will win her back to a more 
intimate fellowship than ever before. The supreme goal of 
Hosea's aspirations for Israel is not external prosperity, but 
the re-establishment of a fellowship of life and love with 
Jehovah; the necessary condition of the enjoyment of this fel- 
lowship is sincere, heart-felt repentance, which to Hosea im- 
plied all that is essential in the New Testament conception of 
repentance: recognition that sin is committed against God, 
a deep sorrow for wrongdoing, and an earnest determination 
to live henceforth in a manner acceptable to God. Hosea is 
the first prophet to mention the Messianic King, in whom 
center the hopes and anticipations of subsequent generations 

(i:ii; 3:5). 

e. The Prophet Isaiah and His Message, During the 
later years of Hosea's activity in Israel, Isaiah, next to Moses 
the greatest prophet of the Hebrews, began his ministry in 
Judah. He began to prophesy about 740 and continued until 
about 700. Without going into details, it may be stated that 
political, social, moral, and religious conditions in Judah were 
practically the same as in Israel during the same period, and 
the age demanded a man of faith, courage, and spiritual 
insight. The personality of Isaiah was such as to fit him for 
the mighty tasks before him. He was not a "pale-faced 
ascetic or a shrinking sentimentalist:" he was a full-blooded 
man, a man of high mettle, who found it quite consistent with 
lowliness to pour contempt upon a weak, vacillating king, 

i to fling burning scorn against mocking skeptics, to denounce 



132 



THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 



falsehood and deceit with words that scorched and blistered 
His one outstanding characteristic was strength — strength of 
character, strength born of intense convictions and of strong 
and lofty motives. Isaiah is in truth a king among prophets. 
Isaiah was not, like Amos, Hosea, and his younger contem- 
porary Micah, a man of the country; his home was in Je- 
rusalem, and he appears to have been of high social rank, 
perhaps a member of the royal family. 

Limitation of space will not permit to do more than give 
a very general outline of Isaiah's message. The book bearing 
his name may be divided into seven portions of unequal 
length: I. Chapters i — 12, Prophecies centering around 
Judah and Israel, coming from different periods of Isaiah^s 
activity and dealing with a variety of subjects. II. Chapters 
13 — 23, Prophecies concerning various foreign nations that 
came into hostile contact with Israel and Judah. III. Chap- 
ters 24 — 27, Portrayal, in vivid colors, of a great world judg- 
ment, and the escape of God's faithful people from its terrors. 

IV. Chapters 28 — 33, Group of discourses having for their 
subject chiefly the relations of Judah with Egypt and Assyria. 

V. Chapters 34, 35, Contrast between the destiny of Edom and 
that of Israel. VI. Chapters 36 — 39, An historical section, 
dealing chiefly with the activity of Isaiah during the reign 
of Hezekiah. VII. Chapters 40 — 66, The restoration of 
Judah from exile. 

/. The Work and Teaching of Isaiah. The key to 
Isaiah's activity may be found in his inaugural vision, an 
account of which is contained in the sixth chapter. During 
that spiritual crisis the following truths were impressed upon 
the prophet; (i) The holiness of Jehovah; (2) the majesty 
of Jehovah; (3) the corruption and stubbornness of His con- 
temporaries; (4) the ethical basis of the relation of Jehovah 
to Israel and the world; (5) the certainty of an awful judg- 
ment; (6) the preservation of a remnant; (7) this remnant 
is to be the seed of a new Israel. With these truths burning 
in his soul, it is not strange that his standard of living for 



THE EIGHTH CENTURY PROPHETS 133 

himself and his fellows was raised; nor is it surprising that 
he strove for forty years, in the face of untold obstacles, to 
lift the nation to the pure heights of his new ideals. With 
this sublime vision of God he knew no sphere of life where 
the presence of Jehovah might not be felt or the battle of 
righteousness might not be fought; and it was his sole ambi- 
tion to fight this battle until the entire national life should be 
regenerated, until worship should be so pure, commerce so 
clean, and politics so honest and unselfish, that all might be 
offered as a holy and acceptable service to Jehovah. 

The broad outlook of Isaiah resulted in a variety of inter- 
ests and activities. He was a patient and painstaking teacher 
of religious truth, a bold and fearless preacher of right living, 
a sane and courageous social reformer, a keen and far-seeing 
statesman, and a divinely enlightened seer penetrating the veil 
hiding the future and anticipating the glorious era when the 
kingdom of God would be established upon earth. As a 
religious teacher Isaiah sought first of all to impress upon 
the hearts and minds of his contemporaries a more adequate 
conception of the nature and character of Jehovah, for he 
was convinced that the cause of Israel's apostasy was the lack 
of a true knowledge of Jehovah. While he agrees with the 
religious conceptions of his predecessors, he gives special 
emphasis to the two phases of the divine character that were 
burned into his innermost soul during his inaugural vision, 
namely, the Divine holiness and majest3^ The lofty concep- 
tion of the character of Jehovah brought with it lofty concep- 
tions of the Divine ideals of righteousness ; and as a preacher 
of right living and a social reformer he endeavored to assist 
his contemporaries toward realizing these ideals; the nation 
being morally and socially corrupt, he labored for a trans- 
formation of the conditions which meant the certain doom 
of his people. Moreover, Isaiah was a statesman. A funda- 
mental factor in his attitude as a statesman was his concep- 
tion of the mission of the nation. He was convinced that 
back of the nation was God; it was he who formed it, nour- 



134 



THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 



ished it, and brought it up, who cared for it, who had for it 
a lofty purpose and mission, and did his utmost to prepare 
the nation for the carrying out of its divinely appointed task. 
Since the nation seemed unwilling to carry out the divine 
purpose, Jehovah must vindicate His holiness and majesty by 
executing judgment upon the guilty. Again and again Isaiah 
announces the impending doom of the nation; but he, like 
the other prophets, looked for the preservation of a righteous 
remnant which might serve as the nucleus of a new kingdom 
of God. Over this kingdom the Messianic King, described in 
glowing colors in 9:1-7 and 11: 1-5, will reign as the repre- 
sentative of Jehovah. 

g. The Prophet Micah and His Message. A few years 
after Isaiah entered upon his prophetic career there appeared 
another prophet in Judah, by the name of Micah. Both 
cherished lofty conceptions of the character of Jehovah and 
of the obligations resting upon His people, and both had 
firmly established convictions concerning the nature and ulti- 
mate triumph of the kingdom of God. A comparison of the 
utterances of the two men also brings out resemblances in 
style, thought, topic, and even phrases ; but the contrast be- 
tween the two in origin, training, and sphere of activity are 
equally marked. The one was a city prophet, of high social 
standing, and the counselor of kings; the other, a simple 
contryman, born of obscure parentage and in close touch and 
sympathy with the peasant class. 

The Book of Micah falls naturally into three parts, each 
containing a description of the present corruption, an an- 
nouncement of imminent judgment, and one or more pictures 
of a bright and glorious future. The three divisions, each 
one beginning with "Hear ye,*' do not represent three con- 
nected discourses, but collections of the essential contents of 
the oral utterances of the prophet during his entire ministry: 
I. Chapters i, 2. Judgment upon Samaria and Judah on ac- 
count of the moral and social corruption of both; the salva- 



THE EIGHTH CENTURY PROPHETS 135 

tion of a remnant. H. Chapters 3 — 5. Contrast between the 
present degradation and the future exaltation; the glories of 
the Messianic age, and the advent of the Messianic King. 
HI. Chapters 6, 7. Jehovah and Israel in controversy; the 
ultimate settlement. 

That the ministry of Micah was not without results is seen 
from Jeremiah 26 : 18, 19, where it is stated that Micah was 
at least partly responsible for the reformation under Heze- 
kiah. He adds nothing essentially new to the teaching of his 
predecessors, but in a simple and forceful manner seeks to 
impress upon his contemporaries the fundamental truths of 
the religion of Jehovah. In the book bearing his name is 
found the best definition of prophetic religion: "What doth 
Jehovah require of thee but to do justly, and to love kind- 
ness, and to walk humbly with thy God?" 

Never again in the history of the Hebrew people, and one 
might almost say, never again in the history of the human 
race, arose within one brief lifetime (755-735 B. C.) four 
men who left a greater and more permanent impression upon 
the religious development of the human race than did the 
four divinely inspired leaders Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and 
Micah. They, more than any other set of men during the 
Old Testament period, were responsible for the preservation 
and growth of the religion out of which sprang, at a later 
time, Christianity. 

Lesson Outline: 

The nature and function of Hebrew prophecy. 

Moses as a prophet. 

Early prophetic activity. 

History of the prophets from the eighth century on. 

The task of the eighth-century prophets. 

The Prophet Amos and his message. 

Hosea and his message. 

Isaiah and his message. 

Micah and his message. 



136 



THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 



Bibliography : 

Batten, "The Hebrew Prophets." 
Kirkpatrick, "The Doctrine of the Prophets." 
Eiselen, "Prophecy and the Prophets." 

Commentaries : "Isaiah," Skinner ; "Amos, Rosea, Micah," 
Eiselen, in "Commentary on the Minor Prophets." 

Topics for Special Study: 

1. The origin and early development of prophecy. 

2. The message of Amos. 

3. The message of Isaiah. 

Topics for Class Discussion : 

1. Describe the work of the Hebrew prophet. 

2. Give names and tell of the work of the early prophets. 

3. Describe the task of the eighth-century prophets. 

4. Tell of Amos and his message. 

5. What can you say of the life and teaching of Hosea? 

6. Discuss the personality, work, and teaching of Isaiah. 

7. Give outline of the Book of Micah. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE PROPHETS SUBSEQUENT TO THE EIGHTH 
CENTURY B. C. 

1. The Seventh-Century Prophets. 

a. The Message of Jeremiah. During the closing years 
of the seventh century four prophets arose in Judah : Jere- 
miah, Zephaniah, Nahum, and Habakkuk. Of these Jeremiah 
was the greatest and enjoyed the longest period of activity. 
He received his call to the prophetic office in 626, and he con- 
tinued to prophesy until after the fall of Jerusalem, in 586. 
The task set before him was not an easy one ; for his ministry 
was to include the nations; nor was it very inspiring, for 
he was to be pre-eminently a prophet of doom. From i : 10, 
which contains the commission of the prophet, to the end of 
the book, the somber note of judgment predominates. In the 
prophecies belonging to the earlier period a note of hope is 
still discernible. Judah may yet repent; if so, the severest 
blow may be averted. But when the years passed without 
any improvement in the people, and especially after the ac- 
cession of Jehoiakim, Jeremiah came to abandon the expec- 
tation of any kind of general response on the part of the ob- 
durate nation. He became convinced that Jehovah's patience 
was exhausted and the time of mercy was past. Justice must 
have her way, and the result will be terrible judgments upon 
the people. From the vices of the present and the judgments 
he expects to fall in the near future, Jeremiah frequently 
turns to the more remote future, for beyond the night of 
calamity and distress he sees the dawn of a brighter day. 
The eternal purpose of the Divine grace must yet be realized. 
The nation Israel maj^ perish, but the kingdom of God must 

^31 



138 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

endure. Promises of restoration are scattered throughout the 
entire book, but they are especially numerous in chapters 30 
to 32y which have been called a "Book of Consolation." The 
most important features of the future glory emphasized by 
Jeremiah are : ( i ) The salvation of a righteous remnant from 
the judgment (4:27; 5:10, 18; 29:11; 30:11; 46:28); 
(2) The restoration of this remnant from exile (3: 12, 21, 22; 
16:14, 15; chapters 30, 31); (3) The rise of a new Jeru- 
salem, to serve as a dwelling-place of Jehovah and a re- 
ligious center for the restored exiles (33 : 16) ; (4) The ad- 
vent of the Messianic King, to reign over the redeemed rem- 
nant (23:4-6; 30:9, 21); (5) The establishment of a cove- 
nant of pardon and grace between the redeemed remnant and 
Jehovah (31:33, 34; 32:40; 33:8); (6) The presence of Je- 
hovah in the midst of the redeemed people; as a result all 
external symbols of Jehovah^s presence may be removed 
(3: 16) ; (7) The nations of the earth will turn to Jehovah 
(3:17; 4:2; 16:19; 33:9). 

The prophecies of Jeremiah may be arranged as follows: 
L The call of Jeremiah and the first visions of doom (i). 
II. Judgment upon Judah for its rebellion against Jehovah 
(2 — 6). HI. Condemnation of the hypocrisy of Judah (7 — 
10). IV. Disregard of Jehovah's will the cause of Judah's 
overthrow (11, 12). V. The decree of the destruction of 
Judah is irrevocable (13 — ^20). VI. Condemnation of the 
faithless rulers (21 — 25). VII. Conflict of Jeremiah with 
false prophets (26 — 29). VIII. Prophecies of the restora- 
tion (30 — 33). IX. The doom of Jerusalem due to the peo- 
ple's faithlessness (34 — 36). X. The life and times of Jere- 
miah — chiefly historical {37 — ^45). XL Prophecies against 
foreign nations (46 — 51). XII. An historical appendix (52). 

Jeremiah is in perfect accord with his predecessors in all 
essential points of teaching. Special attention may be called 
here only to two elements in his teaching, which constitute 
his most valuable contributions to the body of divine truth: 
(i) The spirituality of religion. In former days the national 



THE LATER PROPHETS 139 

aspect of religion was emphasized, and this naturally gave a 
large place to forms and institutions which might be national 
in their use and benefits. Jeremiah saw that the national life 
of Judah was rapidly nearing its close, and with it would dis- 
appear the Holy City, the temple, and other institutions that 
were closely bound up with the religious life of the past. 
Religion, to prepare for this crisis, must be denationalized; 
it must be individualized and spiritualized. This need Jere- 
miah proceeded to supply; and again and again he insists 
that religion is an immediate, personal relationship between 
Jehovah and the individual soul, and heart obedience and de- 
votion of the individual to his God (31 : 33, 34; 32: 40; 33 ^ 8). 
(2) Personal responsibility. The individualization of religion 
implies the doctrine of personal responsibility. With the sense 
of individuality lost, persons might think that they were pun- 
ished for the sins of others, sins committed by some of their 
contemporaries or ancestors (31:29). Conscious personal 
fellowship with God involves a deeper sense of individual re- 
sponsibility. Men will begin to realize that every one is re- 
sponsible for his own conduct (31:30). 

b. The Message of Zephaniah. The earliest of Jeremiah's 
contemporaries was Zephaniah. The occasion of his prophe- 
sying seems to have been the threatening advance of the Scy- 
thians, a horde of barbarians, who overran Western Asia dur- 
ing the latter half of the seventh century B. C. The prophet 
considered the Scythians the executioners of a Divine judg- 
ment upon his sinful countrymen and the surrounding na- 
tions. Repentance offers the only way of escape; those who 
do not repent will be destroyed, those who return to Jehovah 
will be exalted and glorified. The greater part of the book 
(1:2 — 3:7) is given up to threats and denunciations, with 
few indications of hope ; the closing section, 3 : 8-20, contains 
a promise of salvation and exaltation to those who repent. 

Zephaniah adds little that is new to the teaching of his 
predecessors, but he attempts with much moral and spiritual 
fervor to impress upon his contemporaries the fundamental 



I40 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

truths of the religion of Jehovah. Especially notable is his 
emphasis upon the "Day of Jehovah," the great day of battle 
when Jehovah was expected to manifest himself in the de- 
struction of all his foes and the exaltation of the faithful. 
The vision of Zephaniah is world-wide; the judgment will 
fall upon all nations, and from all parts of the world con- 
verts will be won to Jehovah; and these may worship Him, 
"every one from his place.'* 

c. The Message of Nahum. Nahum differs from his pred- 
ecessors in his silence concerning the sin and guilt of Judah. 
The other prophets point to present or impending distress or 
affliction as punishment for sin, and they insist that salvation 
can come only if the people repent and turn to Jehovah. The 
theme of Nahum is the fall and destruction of Nineveh, the 
capital of Assyria, the long-time oppressor of the Hebrews. 
Judah had suffered much from the proud Assyrian, and it is 
not difficult to understand how, with the doom of the cruel 
oppressor imminent a prophet-patriot might burst into shouts 
of exultation and triumph over the distress of the cruel foe, 
for the downfall of the enemy w411 make possible the exalta- 
tion of the people of Jehovah. Chapter i contains the decree 
of Nineveh's doom because the city has devised evil against 
Jehovah. Chapters 2 and 3 describe, in forceful and pictur- 
esque language, the siege, capture, and destruction of the city. 

The utterances of Nahum contain little direct religious 
teaching; and what there is of it is confined very largely to 
the opening verses of Chapter i, where the twofold mani- 
festation of the Divine holiness — the Divine vengeance and 
the Divine mercy — is emphasized (1:2, 3). The manifesta- 
tion of the one results in the destruction of the wicked (1:2), 
the other in the salvation of the oppressed (1:15; 2:2). 
Faith in Jehovah will secure the Divine favor and protection. 
Indirectly the message of Nahum, by its emphasis of the sway 
of Jehovah over the whole universe and the duty of all to 
own this sway, is of profound eternal signficance. "Assyria 
in Nahum's hands becomes an object lesson to the empires 
of the modern world, teaching, as an eternal principle of the 



THE LATER PROPHETS 141 

divine government of the world, the absolute necessity, for 
a nation's continued vitality, of that righteousness, personal, 
civic, and national, which alone exalteth a nation." 

d. The Message of Habakkuk. In the Book of Habakkuk 
a new type of prophecy appears. The prophets were primarily 
preachers and teachers of religion and ethics. They addressed 
themselves to their fellow countrymen in an attempt to win 
them back to Jehovah and a righteous life. Not so Habakkuk. 
He addresses himself to Jehovah, questioning the justice and 
even the reality of the Divine providence. The prophet is 
perplexed, for he can not harmonize the seeming indifference 
of Jehovah in the presence of wide-spread corruption with 
his conception of the Divine character ( i : 2-4) . In reply Je- 
hovah declares that judgment is about to be executed by the 
Chaldeans (1:5-11). The answer raises another problem: 
How can a holy God use the godless Chaldeans as instru- 
ments ? To which Jehovah replies : The Chaldeans, though 
temporarily exalted, will meet certain doom; the righteous, 
though temporarily afflicted, will live forever (1:12 — 2:5). 
There follows a taunt-song over the downfall of the Baby- 
lonians (2:6-20), and the "prayer" of Habakkuk (chapter 3). 

The message of Habakkuk suggests several valuable les- 
sons : (i) The proper attitude amid perplexing problems; 
(2) the universal supremacy of Jehovah; (3) faith, or faith- 
fulness, is a guarantee of permanency and life. 

2. The Prophets of the Exile. 

a. The Message of Obadiah, The historical references 
and allusions in Obadiah 11 — 14 suggest that the message 
originated soon after the fall of Jerusalem, in 586 B. C. The 
message is called forth by the hostility of the Edomites to- 
ward the Jews on that occasion. The prophet announces the 
destruction of Edom (i — 9), because of its hostility and 
cruelty toward Judah (10 — 16), and the subsequent exalta- 
tion of the Jews (17 — ^21). Among the fundamental beliefs 
underlying the message are the following: (i) Jehovah has 
a special interest in Israel. (2) He will establish a new 



142 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

kingdom of God, with Judah and Jerusalem as the center. 
(3) Holiness will be the chief characteristic of this kingdom. 

b. The Message of Ezekiel. In 507 King Jehoiachin and 
about ten thousand of the better class of Jews were carried 
into captivity to Babylonia. Among these exiles was Ezekiel. 
In the fifth year of his exile he entered upon his prophetic 
work. From 593 to 586 Ezekiel devoted himself almost ex- 
clusively to combating the false hopes of a speedy restoration 
entertained by many, both in Jerusalem and in exile. During 
this period denunciations and threats predominate. When 
his predictions of the fall of Jerusalem were fulfilled, a great 
change came over the popular attitude; henceforth Ezekiel 
enjoyed the veneration of all the Jews in Babylon. His mes- 
sage also assumed a different aspect, for he now dwelt more 
and more upon the coming restoration. His glowing words 
kept alive the hope of the people, based upon earlier prophe- 
cies, and at the same time tended to bring the whole people 
into a more vital relation with their God. 

The Book of Ezekiel consists of three main divisions : 
I. Chapters i — 24, The sin and punishment of Judah : i. The 
prophet's call and initiation (1:1 — 3:21); 2. Utterances and 
symbolical actions announcing the impending fall of Judah 
and Jerusalem (3 : 22 — 7 : 27) ; 3. Visions of the corruption 
and doom of Jerusalem; Jehovah's departure from the Holy 
City (8 — 11) ; 4. Discourses and symbolical acts portraying 
the people's sin and doom (12 — 19) ; 5. The doom of Judah 
and Jerusalem (20—24). II. Chapters 25—32, Judgments 
upon foreign nations. These judgments will fall (i) to pre- 
vent the nations from troubling the restored Israel, (2) to 
remove the evil influences which had sprung from the people's 
contact with their heathen neighbors in the past. III. Chap- 
ters 2>2 — A^i Prophecies of the restoration: i. The manner 
in which Jehovah will restore His people to the promised 
land {Z2> — 39)- 2. The constitution upon which the life of 
the restored community is to be organized (40 — 48). 

The preservation of Israel's religion in exile was almost 



I 



I 



THE LATER PROPHETS 143 

entirely due to the service rendered by Ezekiel. The more 
important aspects of his work are : i. Denunciation of Judah's 
sins and announcement of doom (i — ^24). 2. Repentance the 
condition of salvation (18:30-32) ; 3. Promises of restoration 
(11: i6ff ; 16 : 6off ; 27 : 22-24 ; 20 : 4off ; 33 — ^48) . Concerning 
the future restoration and exaltation he says: (i) It will be 
preceded by judgments upon the nations (25 — 32; 38; 39) ; 
(2) The land will be endowed with extraordinary fertility 
(36 : 8, 9, 29, 30, 34, 35) ; (3) The exiles will be prepared for 
the return by a moral and spiritual regeneration (36: 25-27) ; 

(4) The regenerated exiles will be brought back (37 : 1-14) ; 

(5) Over the restored exiles the Messianic King will reign 
(34:11-24; 37:22ff); (6) Jehovah will return to the re- 
deemed people, to abide with them forever (37 : 26, 27 ; 
43:1-12); (7) The restored people will be organized as a 
theocracy (40 — 48). In his conception of Jehovah's nature 
and character Ezekiel agrees fully with his predecessors, call- 
ing special attention to the Divine majesty (i, 10, 43) and 
holiness, and Jehovah's desire that all nations should know 
Him in His fullness (20:41; 28:22, 25; 36:23; 38:16, 23). 
He also emphasizes and expands the doctrine of the freedom 
and responsibility of the individual soul before God, which 
was first taught by Jeremiah (18:20-32). In one respect 
Ezekiel differs from his predecessors, namely, in the high 
estimate he places upon the externals of religion (40 — 48), 
but he is by no means a formalist, as may be seen from the 
profound and noble utterances touching the necessity of a 
new heart (18:31; 36:26) and a new spirit (11:19). 

c. The Message of Isaiah, Chapters 40 to 66. Whoever 
may have been the author of these chapters, it is universally 
admitted that they are written from the standpoint of the 
Babylonian exile, and that, therefore, they must be interpreted 
from that standpoint. The all-pervading note is consolation, 
for the author means to revive the drooping spirit of the 
exiles and prepare them for the restoration which he con- 
siders imminent. The chapters may be arranged in three 



144 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

groups : I. Chapters 40 — 48, the deliverance and restoration 
of the exiles through the instrumentality of Cyrus. To give 
emphasis to his promises, the prophet calls attention again 
and again to the mighty power of Jehovah, which enables him 
to carry out his purpose in the face of all obstacles. II. Chap- 
ters 49 — 55, the mission of the servant of Jehovah and the 
glorification of Zion. The prophet is concerned in these chap- 
ters largely with the moral and spiritual transformation of the 
exiles and their exaltation after the restoration. III. Chapters 
56 — (£, the future blessedness of the true Israel and the 
doom of the apostates. 

In many respects these chapters constitute *the most bril- 
liant jewel of prophetic literature." In the first place, the 
prophet never wearies of emphasizing the fact that Jehovah 
alone is God (40:18-20; 41:29; 43:9^; 44:8-20). This 
one God is all-powerful and supreme over all (40:12, 22, 
23, 28 ; 41 : 2, 25 ; 43 : 12 ; 44 : 28 ; 45 : 1-3) ; He is also a right- 
eous and holy God (41: 10, 14; 42:6; 43: 14; 45: 13, 19, 23; 
46:13; 47:4; 48:17; 49:7; 51:5, 6, 8; 54:5; 55:5; 56:1; 
60:9, 14) ; a God of majesty and power, whose eternal pur- 
pose is to make Himself known to men (40 : 5 ; 43 : 7-25 ; 
48:9-11; etc.). Israel has been chosen to aid God in the 
carrying out of this purpose of grace and good-will (40 — 
53) ; and when the servant of Jehovah has performed his 
task he will be highly exalted; the glories of this exaltation 
are vividly portrayed in chapters 56 — 66. 

3. The Prophets after the Exile. 

a. The Message of Haggai and Zechariah. Babylon fell 
into the hands of Cyrus in 538; and soon after he gave per- 
mission to the Jews to return to their old home. In the 
spring of 537 a large company took advantage of this permis- 
sion, and immediately on their arrival in Jerusalem they set 
up the altar of burnt offerings and laid the foundation of the 
temple (Ezra 3:2ff). However, the first enthusiasm soon 
grew cold, and when in 520 the two prophets Haggai and 
Zechariah appeared, they found building operations at a 



THE LATER PROPHETS 145 

standstill. They recognized the importance of the temple as 
a religious center; hence, from beginning to end their mes- 
sage centers around the rebuilding of the house of God. 
Their preaching produced results, and in 516 the temple was 
completed and dedicated. 

The Book of Haggai contains four separate utterances: 
I. Rebuke of religious indifference, exhortation to resume 
building operations (i: i-ii) ; H. Message of encouragement 
to the builders (2:1-9); HI. The completion of the temple 
a sure guarantee of the return of the divine favor (2: 10-19) ; 
IV. Exaltation of Zerubbabel, the servant of Jehovah (2: 
20-23). Chapter 1:12-15 is an historical section, describing 
the effects of the first discourse. The Book of Zechariah 
opens with a call to repentance (1:1-6). Then follow eight 
night-visions (1:7 — 6:8), all serving a common purpose, 
"the encouragement of the Jews to continue the work of re- 
storing the temple and rebuilding the city, and the re-estab- 
lishing of the theocratic government:" i. The angelic horse- 
men (1:7-17); 2. The four horns and the four smiths 
(1:18-21); 3. The man with the measuring line (2:1-13); 
4. The trial of the high priest (3) ; 5. The golden candlestick 
and the two olive trees (4) ; 6. The flying roll (5:1-4); 
7. The woman in the ephah (5:5-11) ; 8. The four chariots 
with horses of different colors (6:1-8). In 6:9-15 is an 
account of a symbolical act, the crowning of the high priest 
Joshua. In chapters 7 and 8 the prophet points out the es- 
sential elements of Jehovah religion and promises the speedy 
exaltation of the Jews. Chapters 9 — 14 contain a series of 
utterances, loosely connected, dealing for the most part with 
the events leading up to the final triumph of the kingdom of 
God. The two prophets do not contribute any new elements 
of truth; they simply desire to enforce the truths taught by 
the earlier prophets and adapt them to changed conditions. 
However, Zechariah differs from his predecessors in three 
points: (i) in the emphasis he places upon visions as a 
means of divine communication; (2) in the apocalyptic sym- 
bolism that enters into the visions; (3) in the large place 
10 



146 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

occupied by angelic mediation in his intercourse with Je- 
hovah. 

b. The Message of Malachi. The ministry of Malachi 
is connected with the reform movement under Ezra and 
Nehemiah. The fundamental evil of the day was religious 
indifference and skepticism, due, on the one hand, to dis- 
appointment over the non-fulfillment of earlier prophecies. 
The exilic and pre-exilic prophets had painted the glories 
of the restoration in the brighest colors, but the reality was 
far inferior to the ideal. On the other hand, the apparent 
inequalities of life caused many to ask, Where is the God 
of justice? (2:17.) This skepticism soon showed itself in 
the life and conduct of the people; the outstanding wrongs 
being the faithlessness of the priests and the neglect of the 
temple service by the people, divorces, the marrying of for- 
eign women, the non-payment of the tithes, and various 
forms of oppression. Like Ezra and Nehemiah, Malachi 
sought with all his might to counteract these evils. 

Five divisions may be recognized in the Book of Malachi: 
I. The love of Jehovah for Israel (1:2-5). This forms the 
basis of all subsequent appeals. The love of Jehovah for 
Israel, the prophet thinks, should be the motive and model 
for Israel's attitude toward Him. II. The faithlessness of 
priests and people, and their punishment if they fail to re- 
pent (1:6 — 2:g). III. Condemnation of mixed marriages 
and divorces (2:10-16). IV. Condemnation of the spirit of 
indifference and skepticism, which was the root of all the 
religious and moral corruption denounced in the rest of the 
book (3:17 to 4:3). V. Exhortation to obey the law of 
Moses (4:4-6). 

c. The Message of Joel, Joel prophesied a little later 
than Malachi. The occasion of his utterance appears to have 
been a threefold calamity: locusts (1:4), drought (1:16-18), 
and conflagrations (1:19, 20). These calamities were to 
him indications that the day of reckoning was at hand; 
and he pleads most earnestly and persistently for repentance 



THE IvATER PROPHETS i47 

that his contemporaries may escape the terrors of that day. 
The Book of Joel falls naturally into two parts, each one 
capable of subdivisions. In the first (i:i — 2:17) judg- 
ment receives special emphasis; in the second (2: 18 — 3:21) 
the thought of restoration and blessing predominates: I. De- 
scription of the plague which occasions the prophecy ( i : 
1-20; n. The plague the harbinger of the day of Jehovah 
(2:1-17); HI. Restoration of the divine favor (2:18-32); 
IV. Destruction of the nations and exaltation of the Jews 
(3: 1-21). The most significant feature in Joel's teaching is 
his promise of the outpouring of the divine spirit (2: 28, 29), 
which began to be fulfilled on the day of Pentecost, and since 
then has been and is being fulfilled with ever-increasing full- 
ness and in a manner far superior to the expectation of our 
prophet. 

d. The Message of Jonah. The Book of Jonah differs 
from the other books called prophetic by the Jews. All the 
others record chiefly prophetic utterances, though sometimes 
embodying brief narratives of events ; the Book of Jonah, on 
the other hand, records a prophet's work and experiences, 
giving little space to his utterances. And yet it is classed 
among the prophetic books because, whatever historical ma- 
terial it may embody, its purpose is primarily not historical, 
but prophetic. In other words, it was not written to give 
information concerning the prophet Jonah, but, as the prod- 
uct of a prophetic mind, for the purpose of teaching, by 
means of the narrative, a great prophetic truth. 

The book narrates certain incidents connected with 
Jonah's commission to preach in Nineveh: I. Jonah's com- 
mission, disobedience, and punishment (1:1-16); II. Jonah's 
prayer and deliverance (1:17 — ^2:10); III. Jonah's preach- 
ing in Nineveh and its effects (3) ; IV. Jonah's complaint and 
rebuke by Jehovah. The central truth taught in the narra- 
tive is the universality of the Divine plan of redemption. No- 
where else in the Old Testament is such continued stress 
laid upon the Fatherhood of God, embracing in its infinite 



148 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

love the whole human race; indeed, the Book of Jonah is 
the most "Christian" of all Old Testament books. 

e. The Message of Daniel. The Book of Daniel belongs 
to the apocalyptic literature. Like the prophet, the apoca- 
lyptic writer seeks to set forth the character, will, and pur- 
pose of God, as also the laws of His kingdom. But "proph- 
ecy still believes that this world is God's world, and that in 
this world His goodness and truth will yet be justified. 
Hence the prophet addressed himself chiefly to the present 
and its concerns, and when he addresses himself to the fu- 
ture, his prophecy springs naturally from the present, and 
the future which he depicts is regarded as in organic con- 
nection with it. The apocalyptic writer, on the other hand, 
almost wholly despairs of the present; his main interests are 
supramundane." 

The Book of Daniel falls naturally into two parts: 
I. Chapters i — 6, The History of Daniel: i. Daniel's youth 
and education (i) ; 2. The dream of the image, and its sig- 
nificance (2) ; 3. Faithfulness of Daniel's companions, and 
their deliverance from the fiery furnace (3) ; 4. Nebuchad- 
nezzar's tree-dream, and its fulfillment (4) ; 5. The feast of 
Belshazzar, and the handwriting on the wall (5) ; 6. Daniel's 
fidelity, and his deliverance from the lions' den (6) ; II. Chap- 
ters 7 — 12, The Visions of Daniel: i. The vision of the four 
beasts, and its interpretation (7) ; 2. The ram and the he- 
goat (8) ; 3. Daniel's prayer, and the Divine answer (9) ; 
4 The ultimate triumph of the kingdom of God (10 to 12). 

The principal idea of the Book of Daniel is the ultimate 
triumph of the kingdom of God. "It tells in plainer language 
than had been used before, of the subjection of the world to 
God, and indicates clearly the evidence of the Divine rule, 
and assures us that the progress of God's kingdom is abso- 
lutely irresistible, and that all things will be ultimately brought 
into submission to God." As compared with other prophetic 
books, Daniel marks an advance in its teaching (i) con- 
cerning angels, (2) concerning a resurrection from the dead. 



THE LATER PROPHETS 



149 



4. Jesus and the Prophets. The voice of Hebrew proph- 
ecy was finally silenced, but the truth proclaimed throughout 
the centuries continued to live; and when Jesus, the great 
Prophet of Nazareth, appeared. He gathered up from His 
predecessors all that was permanent and divine, and, quicken- 
ing it by His own mighty personality, He sent it down the 
ages until by its life-giving power it should quicken all men 
and make them friends of God and prophets. 

Lesson Outline: 

The message of Jeremiah. 

The message of Zephaniah. 

The message of Nahum. 

The message of Habbakuk. 

The message of Obadiah. 

The message of Ezekiel. 

The message of Isaiah, Chapters 40 — 66, 

The message of Haggai and Zachariah. 

The message of Malachi. 

The message of Joel. 

The message of Jonah. 

The message of Daniel. 



Bibliography : 

Jordan, "Prophetic Ideas and Ideals." 

Commentaries : "Jeremiah," Brown ; ''Ezekiel,'* Davison ; 
"Daniel," Driver; "The Minor Prophets/* Eiselen. 

Topics for Special Study: 

1. The distinctive message of Jeremiah, 

2. The term "servant of Jehovah." 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. State the occasion and contents of the message of Jere- 

miah. 

2. The distinctive contributions of Jeremiah to divine truth. 

3. Tell of the occasion and character of the work of Zepha- 

niah. 

4. The distinctive message of Nahum. 

5. The new type of prophetic message of Habbakuk. 

6. What were the fundamental beliefs of Obadiah? 

7. State the occasion, contents, and teaching of the message 

of Ezekiel. 

8. Characterize Isaiah 40 — 66. 



PART III 

THE NEW TESTAMENT 
By W. C. Barclay 



k 




Copyright, 1906, by Charles Foster Kent 



CHAPTER XIV 
NEW TESTAMENT TIMES 

To pass from the Old Testament to the New is like pass- 
ing from one country to another. One realizes that he is 
in the same world, yet all about him wears a changed aspect. 
Between the latest utterance of the Old Testament and the 
earliest of the New a period of at least two centuries inter- 
vened. These were not idle years. During every decade 
significant history was being made. Before taking up our 
study of the New Testament it is necessary, therefore, to 
take note of these changes as they affected the Jewish people, 
and also to glance in its broad outlines at the national, social, 
and religious situation, of which Jesus was the most signifi- 
cant factor and out of which our New Testament came as 
a priceless gift to succeeding ages. 

I. Government Preceding the Christian Era. 

I. The Maccahean Period (i68 B. C. to 6^ B. C). The 
period receives its name from Judas Maccabeus, the most 
illustrious of a remarkable family of Jewish patriots which 
furnished a series of leaders in a prolonged struggle for re- 
ligious and political freedom. 

The Land of Israel became a part of the empire of Alex- 
ander in ^z^ B. C. For a hundred years after his death 
it was a bone of contention between Egypt and Syria until 
Antiochus III, of Syria, more successful than his predeces- 
sors, after protracted war incorporated it in the Syrian King- 
dom of the Seleucidse. A long-continued attempt to Hel- 
lenize the people culminated in the effort of Antiochus 

153 



154 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Epiphanes (175-164 B. C.) to absolutely destroy Judaism. 
The law was abolished, Sabbath worship and the rite of 
circumcision were prohibited, the temple was partially de- 
stroyed, pagan ceremonies were performed in it, and on the 
sacred altar of burnt offering a heathen altar to Jupiter was 
erected. Under merciless persecution many of the inhabi- 
tants fled, but finally Judas Maccabeus became the leader 
of a loyal Jewish band which defended Israel's sacred in- 
stitutions with the sword. The struggle began in 168 B. C. ; 
by 165 B. C. victory had so far been gained that the temple 
was rededicated, and in 142 B. C. Judea achieved political 
independence. There followed a period of uncertain political 
independence, characterized by internal intrigue, discord, and 
strife, which continued until 6^ B. C. Our principal sources 
of information concerning these troubled times are I. and II. 
Maccabees (apocryphal books of Scripture) and Josephus, 
the Jewish historian. 

2. The Roman Period (beginning 63 B. C.) may be said 
to have extended to 70 A. D., the destruction of Jerusalem. 
In 63 B. C. the Roman general, Pompey, appealed to by both 
sides in a civil war, made an expedition into Judea, turned 
the role of peacemaker into that of conqueror, besieged and 
entered the temple, and made the whole country tributary 
to Rome. By this conquest Jewish independence was for- 
ever lost. The Jewish territory was parceled out to depend- 
ents of Rome, and Judea was constituted an insignificant 
province of the empire. In S7 B. C, Herod the Great was 
appointed king by the emperor, and by successful warfare 
extended his borders to include much more than Judea. He 
was an unscrupulous and arbitrary ruler, in whose acts mur- 
derous cruelty and systematic charity were strangely com- 
bined. His claim to greatness was based upon unusual phys- 
ical vigor, wide learning, and fondness for Grecian and 
Roman art and architecture. Among the victims of the in- 
sane jealousy and wrath of his later years were his own 
wife and three of his sons. By the terror of his rule he was 



NEW TESTAMENT TIMES 155 

able to preserve such internal peace as the land had not 
known for many years. He was a great builder and sought 
to make peace with his subjects by rebuilding the temple at 
Jerusalem on a scale of unequaled size and splendor. Herod 
died in 4 A. D. 

II. Physical and Political Geography of Palestine. 

By our study of the Old Testament we are already fa- 
miliar with the Land of Israel. Because it was His country, 
Christians speak of it as the Holy Land. A common modern 
name is Palestine. 

In the time of our Lord the following were recognized 
as the divisions of the country: i. Judea; 2. Samaria; 3. Gali- 
lee ; 4. Decapolis ; 5. Perea. 

1. Judea lay farthest south. It extended from the Medi- 
terranean Sea east to the Jordan River and the Dead Sea. 
On the south it was bordered by the desert. To the south- 
east was Idumea or Edom. Judea was a small territory, 
crossed from north to south by a mountainous plateau, inter- 
rupted by peaks, rocky hills, dry water-courses, and occa- 
sional valleys — a land of rocks, dwarfed trees, little water, 
and scanty soil. On the east this plateau declined sharply 
to the Jordan, which, at its mouth, lay far below the level 
of the ocean. To the west there was a series of valleys, and 
then a range of low hills which bordered the narrow mari- 
time plain. The central plateau sloped gradually to the south- 
ern desert. 

2. Directly north of Judea was Samaria, extending from 
the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan River. Samaria was 
more open than Judea, with less pronounced contrasts of 
soil and climate, and with a larger area of tillable soil. These 
natural advantages rendered the land more accessible to in- 
vaders, and its people more hospitable to foreign influences. 
To the northwest the great plain of Esdraelon stretched out 
to the sea, a plain of wonderful fertility, with deep, rich soil 
which yielded abundant harvests. It opened a natural road- 



156 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

way from the Mediterranean to the Jordan. On it some of 
the greatest battles of the world's history were fought. 

3. Immediately to the north was Galilee. It was bounded 
on the west by the territory of Tyre, a Gentile region; on 
the north by the river Leontes, and on the east by the Jordan 
and the Sea of Galilee. Its length north and south was sixty 
miles, its breadth about thirty miles; yet in this small area 
it had all the variety of mountain, plain, and valley. It was 
more generously watered than Judea, hence more fertile and 
with more abundant growth of vegetation and trees. 

4. To the east and north of the Sea of Galilee was a 
region dORcult to name. The population was more Gentile 
than Jewish. There were a number of small States, as Iturea, 
Gaulanitis, Batanea, Trachonitis, and others, which played 
an inconspicuous part in the history of the time. The region 
was sometimes spoken of as Decapolis, the word meaning ten 
cities, and referring to ten Greek cities which were leagued 
together in a more or less close commercial and political 
unity. 

5. The district to the south of Decapolis, bordering the 
Jordan and the Dead Sea, was Perea, a narrow strip wedged 
between the river on the west and the desert of Arabia on 
the east. The New Testament never uses the name Perea, 
but uniformly designates the region, "beyond the Jordan/* 

III. The Government During the Lifetime of Jesus. 

From 63 B. C, as we have seen, Palestine was under the 
dominion of Rome. When Jesus was born Herod the Great 
was ruler over all the territory named above, with the title 
of king. Herod died in A. D. 4, and his territory was divided 
between three of his sons : Herod Antipas was made tetrarch 
of Galilee and Perea; Herod Philip was given rule over a 
number of small States in the region of the Decapolis, and 
had the same title ; Judea, Samaria, and Idumea were allotted 
to Archelaus, but in A. D. 6 he was removed by the emperor 
for misrule, and these three districts were constituted the 



NEW TESTAMENT TIMES 



157 



imperial province of Judea, a province of the second rank, 
under a procurator who had the command of the army, was 
the final resort in legal procedure, and supervised the col- 
lection of customs and taxes. Of the earlier procurators the 
names are scarcely known. In A. D. 26 Pontius Pilate was 
appointed and held office until he was deposed in A. D. 2>^. 

The Roman government exacted taxes of two sorts from 
the Jews. The direct taxes, consisting of a land tax and a 
poll tax, were collected by salaried officials. The customs, or 
indirect taxes, were assessed on exports, and were collected 
by men who had bought the right, and their representatives. 
Both the chief collectors and their hirelings are called pub- 
licans in the New Testament. Because of their relation to 
Rome they were much despised by loyal Jews. The system 
readily lent itself to abuse, and most of the publicans were 
extortioners and thoroughly unscrupulous. 

The highest Jewish court of justice was the Sanhedrin. 
It had jurisdiction only within Judea, but its influence ex- 
tended to Galilee and among Jews everywhere. It took cog- 
nizance of all that affected Jewish interests, and in cases of 
justice its judgment was final except in capital cases; the 
power to sentence to death was in the hands of the proc- 
urator alone. The Sanhedrin had seventy-one members, 
"elders," from the ranks of the priestly aristocracy, and from 
the scribes. The high priest was president. 

IV. Political and Religious Parties. 

The Pharisees. There were certain influential parties 
among the Jews in the time of Jesus. First in number and 
importance were the Pharisees, who were highly regarded 
by the common people. In their origin they were a religious 
fraternity, the successors of *'the Pious," or Hasideans, who, 
after the return from the exile, insisted on absolute separa- 
tion from all that was heathen, cherished an unbounded zeal 
for the law, fostered the development of that mass of scribal 
explanations of and decisions upon the law known as the oral 



158 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

law, or traditions, and with intense zeal opposed all foreign 
influences. The Pharisees first came into notice during the 
time of the Maccabees; they were early characterized by re- 
ligious zeal and a punctilious endeavor to perfectly obey the 
law, both written and oral, in all its details. In the time 
of Jesus their earnest spirit had degenerated into spiritual 
pride and empty formalism. Their religion was of the letter, 
and the living God had no place in their lives or their thought. 
So far as they held a hope of a Messiah it was that God 
would send a deliverer unexpectedly and in mysterious and 
apocalyptic fashion. 

The Sadducees. The Sadducees were more a political 
than a religious party. Representing long-latent tendencies 
existent among the Jewish people, they first became an or- 
ganized party in the time of the Maccabees. Their chief 
interest concerned the building-up of the Jewish State. 
Through prominence in political affairs they had come into 
contact with foreign ideas, many of which they welcomed. 
These generated a worldly spirit. They amassed wealth and 
were recognized as of the aristocratic class. They honored 
the law of Moses, but denied the binding force of the oral 
law. They denied the doctrine of the resurrection of the 
body and the existence of angels and spirits. Their oppo- 
sition to Jesus was not so pronounced as that of the Phari- 
sees until near the close of His ministry, when He came into 
sharp conflict with them. Strange to say, the Sadducees, 
though utterly secular in spirit, were closely allied to the 
priestly party. Many of the priests were Sadducees. Thus 
it may be realized how entirely vain many of the rites and 
ceremonies of the temple service must have been. 

The Zealots, The Zealots embodied the passionate hatred 
of and resistance to the foreign rule. They were ready to 
take advantage of the least opportunity to use the sword, and 
hoped by means of revolution to set up the kingdom of God. 
Their hope of a Messiah was political; He would be the 
chosen instrument of God to overthrow all of Israel's enemies 



NEW TESTAMENT TIMES 159 

and usher in the golden era of God's chosen people. They 
were impetuous, hot-headed enthusiasts, intensely religious. 
Simon, the Canaanite, came from the Zealot ranks into the 
apostolic company. 

The Pious. There were doubtless among the people of 
Jesus* day many devout, earnest souls, who, living humble, 
patient, loving, faithful lives, awaited in calm, confident ex- 
pectation the "Consolation of Israel." We have acquaintance 
with some such, as Simeon, Anna, Zachariah, Elizabeth, Jo- 
seph, and Mary; these and others like them were the holy 
remnant, the representatives in her day of visitation, of Is- 
rad*s most precious heritage, a spiritual, pure, and undefiled 
religion. From this company came most of those who re- 
sponded to Jesus' call and became charter members of the 
Christian Church. 

The Samaritans, This people, inhabitants of San aria, 
though occupying Jewish territory, must be sharply distin- 
guished from the Jews. They were a mixed race, descend- 
ents of colonists brought into the country by the Assyrians 
at the time of the captivity of the ten tribes and later. These 
had intermarried with Jews left in the land. When the Jews 
of the captivity returned, from reasons of religious exclusive- 
ness they refused to intermingle or have any dealings with 
the Samaritans, and a mutual enmity sprang up which per- 
sisted to New Testament times. Their worship, similar to 
that of the Jews, had its center on Mt. Gerizim, where a 
temple was built in the time of Nehemiah. Little is accu- 
rately known concerning their religion beyond their claim 
that Mt. Gerizim was the chosen place of God for His 
temple, the similarity of their rites and sacrifices to those 
of the Jews, and their belief that a Messiah was to come. 

V. Religious and Social Conditions of the Epoch. 

In the time of Jesus the temple was still ideally the center 
of the Jewish religion. Herod's Temple, replacing that of 
Zerubbabel, although begun about 20 B. C, was not com- 



i6o THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

pletely finished until 62 A. D., only eight years before its 
final destruction. The temple was the scene of daily sacri- 
fices, in the celebration of which thousands of priests en- 
gaged in the course of a year, and of prayer and worship. 
On the great feast days, when multitudes of Jews came up 
to Jerusalem from all parts of the world, it was the center 
of special services. Thus the temple had a prominent place 
in the religious life of every loyal Jew. 

Synagogues were numerous. Every community of any 
considerable size had its synagogue. This institution of later 
Judaism was called into existence during the exile, when the 
Jews were far separated from the temple. On the return 
it was continued and became, to a large extent, the real cen- 
ter of the reHgious life of the people. In every place it gave 
the opportunity for religious services and for instruction. 
The local synagogue was under the control of the elders; 
its chief officer was the ruler, who was in direct charge; 
the minister had the care of the building and its furnishings, 
administered discipline, and instructed the children; two 
other officers were receivers of alms. Services were held regu- 
larly on Sabbath and on feast days; and in some synagogues, 
where a congregation was assured, daily. No service could 
be held without the presence of at least ten men. Women 
were privileged to attend, but were not counted as members 
of the congregation. The service consisted of public prayer 
offered by a designated leader; the reading, first, from the 
Pentateuch, then from the Prophets; the translation of the 
lessons from Hebrew into Aramaic, the common speech of 
the people; and finally by a sermon, generally an exposition 
of the lesson. The synagogue also served as an elementary 
school; in it children were regularly instructed in the Scrip- 
tures. 

The home life of the Jewish people was the nearest ap- 
proach to ideal that the ancient world presented. It was 
strongly pervaded by religion. The sacred law was revered; 
little boxes containing pieces of parchment, on which were 



NEW TESTAMENT TIMES i6i 

written the words of Deuteronomy 6: 4-9, and 11 : 13-21, were 
fastened to the door-post. The Sabbath was severely- 
guarded. Ceremonial purity was insisted upon, including the 
distinctions between clean and unclean food, and the details 
concerning the times and ways of fasting and the wearing of 
fringes and phylacteries were minutely observed. Without 
doubt these ceremonies were with many only a lifeless form. 
Back of these petty and wearisome details were ideals and 
customs of great significance and worth. Life was regarded 
with seriousness, the name of Jehovah was reverenced, and 
a sincere desire and purpose existed to fear, honor, and 
serve Him. 

Children were held in high regard; destruction of infants, 
so common among most Gentile peoples, was unknown; to 
be childless was regarded a reproach. Children were care- 
fully instructed in religion, compelled to memorize long sec- 
tions of the law, and made familiar with the nation's history. 
Woman held an honorable position. Manual labor was never 
despised ; every son was caused to learn a trade. The masses 
of the people were poor, and their income very small. The 
houses were mostly small— usually with one or two square 
rooms, opening frequently on a square court — and roofed 
over with thatch. The furniture was simple: a couch or 
mat for sleeping, and a few cooking utensils ; this was about 
all, except in the houses of the rich. Pictures and statuary 
were not used, because forbidden by the law (Ex. 20:4). 
The houses were grouped together in villages and towns, 
from which the shepherds and those who tilled the soil went 
out to their daily work in the fields. 

Lesson Outline: I 

Government preceding the Christian era : The Maccabean 

period ; the Roman period. 
Physical and political geography of Palestine. 
The government during the lifetime of Jesus, 
Political and religious parties. 
Religious and social conditions. 

H 



i62 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Books for Reference : 

Waddy-Moss, "From Malachi to Matthew." 

Riggs, "History of the Jewish People During the Maccabean 

and Roman Periods." 
Hastings, "One Volume Bible Dictionary." 
Mathews, "The Messianic Hope." 

Topics for Special Study: 

1. The development of the ideas of the Messiah. 

2. The history and tenets of the Pharisees. 

3. The life of Herod the Great. 

4. The history and the people of Galilee. 

5. Judaism as a religion. 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. What is the explanation of the numerous political changes 

in Palestine? 

2. Why did Jesus so severely condemn the Pharisees? 

3. What was the distinguishing difference between the Phari- 

sees and the Sadducees? 

4. What were the chief religious institutions in the time of 

Jesus ? 

5. Why were the publicans so despised a class among the 

Jews ? 



CHAPTER XV 
THE LIFE OF JESUS 

The; New Testament has Twenty-seven Books. Four 
of these books are grouped about a Person, Jesus Christ. 
Their purpose is to present Him, His acts, and His words. 
One book has for its theme the ministry of His apostles, and 
their work in relation to the founding of His Church. Of the 
remaining books the most are written to His followers, either 
individuals or Churches, for instruction in the truth of the 
Christian religion, for practical counsel, for warning and ex- 
hortation. Thus it is seen that in the entire New Testament 
library a personality is supreme. To know the New Testa- 
ment, to be prepared to teach it, one must be acquainted with 
Jesus Christ. It is all-important that He be pre-eminent in 
our thought as He was in the thought of the people of the 
New Testament. We must learn habitually to read and study 
the entire New Testament with Jesus Christ standing con- 
stantly in the foreground. 

Jesus lived almost two thousand years ago. Through all 
these centuries men have been thinking and speaking of Him 
in terms of their own times, and He has been the subject 
of art, of poetry, and of doctrine-making. Most of us had 
our ideas of Him before we came to any thoughtful study 
of the Gospels. But to be exact teachers, it is necessary for 
us to go to the Gospels and find for ourselves the Jesus 
which they portray, and thereby come to a first-hand knowl- 
edge of Him. 

1. Sources for the Life of Jesus. We can not become ac- 
quainted with Jesus anywhere else than in the New Testa- 

163 



i64 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE \ 

ment. It is our only source of detailed information concern- 
ing Him dating from anywhere near His own time. Of sec- 
ular writers only Tacitus, Pliny, Suetonius, and Josephus 
make any mention of Him, and none speak of Him at length. 
Of New Testament books the earlier epistles of Paul are 
nearest in point of time to His life. They give us, inciden- 
tally, considerable information concerning Him, such as the 
record of His appearances after His resurrection. His Davidic 
descent, His poverty, and the meekness and gentleness of 
His nature. They contain also much of His teaching, but 
in a distinct Pauline form and phraseology. It is evident, 
therefore, that the four Gospels must be the great principal 
source of our intimate knowledge of Jesus. It must be borne 
in mind that the Gospels are not biographies in the sense 
in which the word is commonly used. The biographical pur- 
pose is combined with the pedagogical. The aim of the 
writers was to teach about Jesus — who He was, His mission 
and work — not merely to give the facts concerning His life. 
2. Birth and Early Life. Jesus was born in Bethlehem 
of Judea. The date can not be fixed with certainty, but was 
probably between the years 4 and 6 B. C. Joseph, accom- 
panied by Mary, had come to Bethlehem from Nazareth, of 
Galilee, to be enrolled at his ancestral home, a census hav- 
ing been commanded by the Emperor Augustus. After the 
fulfillment of the religious rites required by the law at the 
birth of a male child, from fear of Herod the little company 
fled to Egypt, where they remained until Herod's death, and 
then returned to Nazareth. One only of the Gospels has any 
reference to these intervening years of childhood and youth, 
but Luke's brief mention is rich in suggestion. From it a 
beautiful picture may be truthfully drawn of an ideal child- 
hood in which a strong and vigorous body, an alert mind, 
a submissive will, and an obedient heart all were important 
elements. We may well believe that in the ensuing years of 
silence and obscurity, through daily discipline, earnest and 
prolonged searching to know and to do the Father's will, and 



THE LIFE OF JESUS 165 

unvarying obedience to the Spirit's leading, the youth Jesus 
was coming gradually into possession of that marvelous per- 
fection of character which, revealed in the brief period of 
His active ministry, has received the reverent admiration of 
all succeeding centuries. 

The ministry of John the Baptist immediately preceded 
that of Jesus. John was a unique figure, reminding us in 
many respects of the prophet Elijah. Apparently without any 
previous consultation with Jesus, conscious within himself 
that a day of great spiritual opportunity and privilege was 
at hand, he went forth into the region of Judea and the 
Jordan Valley to preach a stern message of denunciation, of 
warning, and of invitation to repentance. He offered baptism 
in the Jordan as a confession of sin, as a profession of re- 
pentance, and as a pledge of remission. He made no attempt 
to attach disciples to himself, but rather spoke of a Coming 
One, whose baptism would be spiritual, and who would ex- 
ercise a ministry of judgment. 

Jesus set His seal of approval on John's work by pre- 
senting Himself for baptism. John at first demurred, then 
consented to baptize Him. As Jesus came from the water, 
He was conscious of the Holy Spirit coming upon Him and 
of the Father's attestation of His Divine Sonship. Luke in- 
serts in his account the parenthetical statement that Jesus at 
this time was about thirty years of age. 

The baptism was immediately followed by a period of 
special temptation. There had come to Jesus a new sense of 
His power. Power always brings temptation. How should 
this power be used? The evil suggestion was for ministry 
to self, for vain display, for selfish aggrandizement. But 
Jesus had hidden the Word of God in His heart, and on 
every occasion of temptation the Word aided Him in suc- 
cessful defense. 

The fourth Gospel, as the second, has no account of the 
birth and early life of Jesus. But the Gospel of John alone 
has a vivid account of certain opening events of Jesus' 



i66 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 






ministry. (See John 1:19 — 4:42.) John the Baptist intro- 
duced Jesus, first to priests and Levites from Jerusalem, and 
then to some of his own disciples, in such a way as to enlist 
them as followers of Jesus. There followed what was prob- 
ably a brief period of preaching and teaching in Judea, then 
in Galilee, and then again in Judea. 

3. The Public Ministry, With the imprisonment of John 
the Baptist by Herod, the public ministry of Jesus began. 
v^ He withdrew from Judea into Galilee, removed His residence 
from Nazareth to Capernaum, and from that city as a center 
began to preach to the people that the kingdom of God had 
come, and to teach in the synagogues. He extended to four 
men—Simon, Andrew, James, and John — already His disci- 
ples — an invitation to turn from their occupation of fishing and 
to become ^'fishers of men." He commanded the attention and 
interest of the multitude by exercising a ministry of healing 
in the vicinity of Capernaum, and then, when they thronged 
about Him with excess of curiosity, He departed on a tour 
of preaching and healing through Galilee. As He went from 
place to place He drew after Him certain disciples. We have 
reason to believe that there were more of these followers 
than are named in the Gospel narratives. We know that 
among them was Levi, the publican, who became Matthew, 
the author of the first Gospel. Erelong from the company 
of disciples He chose twelve apostles to be His authorized 
representatives, to go forth in His name and impart His 
teaching to the world. To them and the whole company of 
disciples He gave that most remarkable summary of His 
teaching, the Sermon on the Mount. Accompanied by the 
apostolic band, and at times by a larger number. He itiner- 
ated from place to place, ministering in body, mind, and soul 
to all who were in need, and using His acts of mercy and 
kindness as means of enforcing His spoken message. 

The teaching of Jesus centered in His proclamation of the 
Father's love and care for men, and His declaration of the 
duty of men to love God and their fellow-men with their 



I 



THE LIFE OF JESUS 167 

whole hearts, and to live lives of inward purity and self- 
sacrificing service. He began His teaching by proclaiming 
that the kingdom of God was at hand, and exhorting men 
to repent and believe the Good News. Only those could be 
members of the kingdom who possessed the true righteous- 
ness, not that of the letter, but of the spirit, consisting in 
being like God: merciful, forgiving, long-suffering, gentle, 
peaceable, and kind. No good work was to be performed 
for honor, glory, or the praise of men. Life was to be lived 
trustfully, without anxious care or worry. The Father ever 
regarded His own and would supply every need. Whatever 
was asked of Him in faith would be granted. Little children 
were of the kingdom, and men were commanded to be like 
them. To realize the life and character of the child of God 
constituted the true riches, the wealth which could not be 
lost or destroyed, and to attain to this must be the constant 
ideal; to be a disciple one must be willing to sacrifice all 
lower pleasures and aims, even to lose one's life. His dis- 
ciples were to be a light to the world. Even as His words 
contained the life-giving principle, so His followers must be 
a leavening influence in the world. His kingdom would not 
prevail suddenly, nor come by observation, but gradually and 
silently. No power of earth or hell would be able to triumph 
against it. Into it would be gathered peoples of all lands 
and races. Its members possessing eternal life, would live 
forever with God and share His glory and His joy. This 
was the Gospel which, reinforced by constant works of kindly 
ministry and by many illustrations from nature and the com- 
mon life about Him, Jesus preached through Judea, Galilee, 
and Samaria. He put forth no public assertions of Messiah- 
ship, and when John the Baptist, becoming doubtless some- 
what impatient, sent from his lonely prison cell to ask Him 
whether He was the Messiah who should come. He replied 
only in terms of the merciful ministry which He was bearing 
to men. 

But there was not lacking those who found reason for 



1 68 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

offense even in such a gracious and beautiful life as this. 
The Pharisees, the dominant religious party of the time 
among the Jews, were stirred, first to jealousy, and then to 
hatred. The common people heard Him gladly, and many 
turned from their proud and haughty self-appointed teachers 
to Him, the meek and lowly One, who by His spirit and His 
words revealed the Heavenly Father anew to them. This 
stirred the Pharisees to jealousy. Jesus did not patronize 
them, but boldly exposed their hypocrisy, their spiritual pride, 
their lack of Godlike qualities of character, and condemned 
them in severest terms. This aroused their enmity and hos- 
tility. So long as He was comparatively unknown they made 
no pronounced manifestation against Him. As the knowl- 
edge of Him spread they began to plan open and pronounced 
opposition. The multitudes also, who at first followed Him 
from place to place, began to desert Him. They, too, were 
disappointed in Him. They wanted a popular hero, a spec- 
tacular Messiah, a political leader who would organize revolt 
against Rome. He repeatedly refused to accede to their Mes- 
sianic ideas and demands, and presented His mission in its 
exclusively spiritual character. It was not His work, He de- 
clared, to feed the multitudes with bread, such as Moses gave, 
but to impart to them His spirit and His truth. At this 
epoch many superficial disciples forsook Him, but the twelve 
remained true. He had given Himself largely to instructing 
and training them, givTng them practical training by taking 
them upon tours of evangelization and healing, and then in- 
creasing their self-reliance and enlarging their experience by 
sending them out two and two through Galilee. He told 
them little of Himself. Gradually, however, they were com- 
ing to their own appreciation and valuation of Him, and 
when, on a journey for retirement and rest in the region of 
Caesarea Phiiippi, He asked them for their estimate of Him, 
Peter as spokesman declared their conviction that He was 
the Christ, the Son of God. Jesus accepted this confession 
from their lips, and declared to them that it was heaven-born. 



THE LIFE OF JESUS 169 

But he further indicated that the time had not yet come 
for this to be spread abroad, and asked them to tell no 
man. 

From this very hour a new element entered into the teach- 
ing of Jesus ; He began to declare to them that He must 
suffer rejection and condemnation from the hands of the 
leaders of the nation, and be killed by them. At first the 
disciples revolted from this, but afterward appear to have 
placed it in the background of their thought. Jesus declared 
to them that this test of rejection and condemnation which 
He had already met in anticipation was also the test of true 
discipleship ; that His disciples could only gain the true life 
by a readiness to lose their present life for His sake. This 
first pronounced teaching of Jesus concerning His rejection 
was followed very shortly by His transfiguration. We can 
not but feel that the two have a very intimate connection. 

It is difficult — indeed, quite impossible — to fix chronolog- 
ical periods in the life of our Lord, Some scholars have 
maintained that the active ministry extended over a period of 
between three and four years. Eminent authorities have con- 
tended for a period of one and a half years. None of the 
evangelists were sufficiently interested in the time element to 
furnish us with conclusive data. Upon this all are agreed, 
from the occasion of Peter's confession events rapidly crowd 
on to the tragic end. A brief period was occupied in the 
further intimate instruction of the company of apostles and 
disciples; Capernaum was revisited; an autumn journey was 
taken to Jerusalem to the Feast of Tabernacles (see John 
7:1 — 8:59); a brief period of ministry was spent in Perea, 
during which, by the aid of the seventy, an effort was made 
to carry the Gospel to that section of Jewish territory to 
which Jesus had previously given little attention (see Luke 
9:51 — 19:28, especially 10:1-24); then came the triumphal 
entry and martyrdom. 

4. The Passion Week and the Forty Days. The triumphal 
entry was Jesus' public proclamation of Messiahship. Be- 



I70 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

fore this He had carefully refrained from such an announce- 
ment and had given Himself to a ministry of mercy and to 
acquainting His followers with His spirit and His teaching. 
Now the time had come when He desired it to be understood 
that He was the Christ, and to this end He carefully planned 
the fulfillment of a distinctly understood Messianic prophecy, 
and accepted from the people Messianic titles. The triumphal 
entry probably took place on Sunday, the first day of the 
week. On tlie next day Jesus again asserted His royal 
authority b}^ the cleansing of the temple. Tuesday was a 
day of conflict with the Jewish leaders. Boldly He declared 
that they fought against the Lord, but warning and condem- 
nation of their evil course only intensified their enmity and 
deepened their determination to take His life (see Mark 
11:27 — 12:12). Probably on the evening of this v^ry day 
the conspiracy was entered into between the chief priests and 
Judas Iscariot for His arrest. Wednesday was spent, it is 
thought, at Bethany in quiet retreat with His friends. On 
the evening of Thursday the Last Supper was celebrated, and 
the Master, clearly foreseeing what was about to take place, 
spoke His farewell messages of instruction and consultation 
to His own. During that same night He was taken by the 
treachery of one of the twelve, and led bound for trial, first 
to the Jewish Sanhedrin, then to Pilate, the Roman proc- 
urator of Judea. The charge brought against Him was that 
He blasphemed by calling Himself the Son of God, and that 
He was a traitor to Rome because He claimed to be a king. 
Pilate was disposed to release Him on the ground of no ade- 
quate evidence in support of the charge; but under the in- 
fluence of the insistent and angry demand of the mob, led 
by the chief priests, cowardly delivered Him to their will, 
consenting to His crucifixion. The turbulence of the mob 
and the cupidity of the favor-seeking official are clearly indi- 
cated by Luke's statement : "They were urgent with loud 
voices, asking that He might be crucified. And their voices 
prevailed. And Pilate gave sentence that what they asked 



THE LIFE OF JESUS 171 

for should be done. . . . Jesus he delivered up to their 
will/' (Luke 23: 23-25.) 

The sentence of Pilate was carried out with unseemly 
haste. Before the setting of Friday's sun the greatest tragedy 
of the world's history had been enacted and the dead body 
of the Man of Galilee lay in the rock-hewn tomb of Joseph 
of Arimathea. It remained for the guilty conspirators them- 
selves to give largest credence to the declaration of Jesus 
that He would rise again. While His disciples in sorrow and 
despair dispersed to their former homes, the chief priests 
and the Pharisees were using every means to make sure His 
tomb. But His spirit could not be bound, and when, at the 
dawn of Sunday, woman's devotion led two on love's eYrand 
of ministry to a dead body, they found an empty tomb. Jesus 
had ri-sen from the dead. 

After His resurrection, Jesus appeared to His disciples 
on several occasions at intervals during a period of forty 
days. At such times He reassured their faith in Him as the 
Christ, declared to them that it was inevitable that He should 
be rejected, should suffer, and should rise again; gave to 
them the Great Commission of world evangelization, and 
promised them His presence and His Spirit's power in its 
fulfillment. Finally at Bethany He departed from them in 
bodily presence, having g'ven to them His benediction and 
having received from them their worship as Master and Lord. 

Lesson Outline: 

The central theme of the New Testament. 

Sources for the life of Jesus. 

Birth and early life. 

The public ministry. 

The Passion Week and the forty days. 



Books for Reference : 

Farrar, "The Life of Christ." 

Gilbert, ''The Student's Life of Jesus." 

Edersheim, "The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah." 

Stevens, "The Teaching of Jesus." 



172 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Topics for Special Study : 

1. Jesus' teaching on sin. 

2. The attitude of Jesus towards the Old Testament. 

3. The Sermon on the Mount ; the theme, the main divisions, 

the central teachings. 

4. Light on the life of Jesus from the Epistles. 

5. The historical evidence for the Resurrection. 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. What are the principal sources of our knowledge of Jesus? 

2. In what did discipleship consist for the first followers of 

Jesus ? 

3. Can the teachings of Jesus be practically applied now in 

every-day life? 

4. Why was Jesus crucified? 

5. What was the attitude of Jesus toward the Messianic 

ideals of His time? 



THE LIFE OF JESUS 173 



Chronological Outline of the Life of Jesus. 

(The chronology of the life of our Lord can not be defi- 
nitely determined. The following scheme presents the general 
outline of Jesus' life according to consensus of scholarly 
opinion. The subdivisions with dates are presented only as 
a possible arrangement.) 

1. The Thirty Years of Silence. From the birth of Jesus, 
5 B. C, to the beginning of the ministry of John the Baptist, 
summer of 26 A. D. 

2. The Opening Events of Jesiis' Ministry. From the be- 
ginning of John's ministry, summer of 26 A. D., to the public 
appearance of Jesus in Jerusalem, Passover, April, 2y A. D. 

3. The Early Judean Ministry, From the public appear- 
ance of Jesus in Jerusalem, Passover, April, 27 A. D., until 
the return to Galilee, December, 27 A. D. 

4. The Galilean Ministry. From the return to Galilee in 
December, 2y A. D., until the final departure from Galilee in 
November, 29 A. D. 

5. The Perean Ministry. From the final departure from 
Galilee in November, 29 A. D., to the final arrival at Jeru- 
salem, before the Passover, April, 30 A. D. 

6. The Passion Week. From the final arrival at Jeru- 
salem, April, 30 A. D., to the resurrection. 

7. The Forty Days. From the resurrection, April, 30 
A. D., to the ascension, May, 30 A. D. 



CHAPTER XVI 
THE GOSPELS 

How the New Testament Came to Be. The earliest doc- 
uments of Christianity which have come down to our own 
age are .certain letters of the Apostle Paul. Jesus Himself 
wrote nothing. After His ascension His followers were at 
first content to repeat His teachings from memory, and in- 
asmuch as it was generally believed among them that He 
would return within their lifetime, probably no need was 
realized for written records of His life and deeds. As soon 
as Churches were established the relation of dependence 
between the Church and its founder called for communica- 
tions between them. Certain of these communications, by 
no means all of them, escaped destruction and remain to 
us as the first written records of the Christian religion. As 
the generation of those who had seen and known Christ in 
the flesh began to pass away, and as Christianity spread far 
beyond the territorial bounds of Jesus' own work, the need 
was felt for accurate accounts of His words and acts. Thus 
the Gospels were called into existence. 

The Gospels no doubt took form gradually. There is no 
reason to suppose that they sprang at once into their present 
full-grown and finished state. Back of them lie collections 
of the sayings of Jesus, reports of sermons and conversa- 
tions, fragmentary records of sections of His ministry. Just 
as a biographer first accumulates his material in the way 
of records, printed utterances, traditions of sayings, recollec- 
tions of friends and acquaintances, so doubtless the Gospel 
writers utilized already existing records. 

174 



THE GOSPELS 175 

Time Represented in Writing and Literary Form. The 
New Testament differs from the Old both in respect to 
length of time covered in writing and in variety of literary 
form represented. It is the expression of the inspiration 
of the earliest Christian consciousness. One hundred twenty- 
five years at most represents the period within which the 
books were written. The literary forms are fewer; the 
books themselves may all be classified as historical, episto- 
lary, or apocalyptic. Occasional examples of some other lit- 
erary forms — as poetry, parable, and oratory — are to be found 
within the various books. 

On the following page will be found an arrangement of 
the books of the New Testament in the probable order of 
their writing. It would immensely aid the student in his 
understanding of Christianity to take up the study of the 
books in the order of their writing, but this for our present 
purpose seems impracticable. The student should, however, 
study this table until it becomes familiar to him, and until 
he fully realizes that the common order in which the books 
are presented in our New Testament is quite an arbitrary one. 

The Language of the New Testament. Although all the 
apostles were Hebrews, the books of the New Testament 
were written in the Greek language. As one effect of the 
conquests of Alexander the Great, the Greek language had 
become widely diffused and was the common medium of 
literary expression throughout the ancient world. The 
Greek of the New Testament is a peculiar idiom, differing 
in vocabulary, structure, and style from the classical form 
of the language, and is commonly called Hellenistic Greek. 
Aramaic was the common spoken language of Palestine in 
the time of Christ, and traces of this language are found 
on the pages of the New Testament. 



176 



THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 



DATES ASSIGNED TO THE BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
BY REPRESENTATIVE MODERN SCHOLARS. 



^2 



n 
o 

It 

C! o 



James, 

iThessalonians, . 
2 Thessalonians, . 
Galatians, . . . . 

1 Corinthians, . . 

2 Corinthians, . . 

Romans, 

Philippians, . . . 
Philemon, . . . . 
Colossians, . . . . 
Kphesians, . . . . 

1 Timothy, . . . . 
Titus, 

2 Timothy, . . . . 
Jude, 

1 Peter, 

Mark, 

Matthew, 

IvUke, 

Acts, 

2 Peter, 

Hebrews, 

Revelation, . . . . 
John, 

1 John, 

2 John 

Sjolin, 



About 50 



About 60-62 
About 50 
About 68-70 
About 70 
70-80 
After 80 
175-200 



70 



45-62 
:Eud of 52 

53 
Probably 54 

57 

57-58 

About 58 

62 

63 

63 

63 

Between 63-65 

Between 63-65 

Between 63-65 

Probably 65-67 

Probably 65-68 

66-70 

68-72 

Probably 70-80 

Probably 70-80 

Uncertain, say 66-68 

Probably about 66 

Probably 68-70 

Probably 90-100 

Probably 90-100 

Probably 90-100 

Probably 90-100 



Mayer, 40-50 
Milligan, Prob. 50-51 
Milligan, Prob, 50-51 
Ivightfoot, 57-58 
Ivias, 57 

Plummer, About 58 
Sanday, 58 

Ivightfoot, About 58-59 
Lightfoot, 62-63 
Lightfoot, 62-63 
Lightfoot, 62-63 
Humphreys, 66-67 
Humphreys, 66-67 
Humphreys, 66-67 
Bigg, About 65 
Bigg, 58-64 
Swete, Before 70 
Allen, 65-75 
Plummer, 75-80 
Lumby, Prob. about 66 
Bigg, Prob. about 65 
Goodspeed, Prob. 90-96 
Swete, 90-96 
Westcott, About 100 
Westcott, 90-100 
Westcott, 90-100 
Westcott, 90-100 



THE GOSPELS 177 

I. The Four Gospels. 

Gospel The word is from the Anglo-Saxon Godspell, 
meaning "God story/' and is used as a translation of the 
Greek term meaning "good tidings." As Jesus used it the 
word meant the good news of the kingdom of God, or the 
good tidings of the favor and love of God. After the res- 
urrection it was used to mean the good tidings about Christ, 
and so later it came to be applied to the written record of 
the life and words of Jesus. The New Testament has four 
distinct records of His life, which are spoken of as the Four 
Gospels. 

Resemblances and Differences. The student of the Gos- 
pels soon discovers that they fall naturally into two un- 
equal groups — one of three books, the other of one. Mat- 
thew, Mark, and Luke have many characteristics in com- 
mon, while John stands by itself. The resemblances of the 
first three Gospels extend to a similarity in general content, 
in quotations from the Old Testament, in sequence of events, 
in purpose, and in general atmosphere, and are such that the 
three, as distinguished from the fourth, are spoken of as 
the Synoptic Gospels, from two Greek words meaning "to- 
gether" and "view;" that is, a common view. 

The Gospel of John is distinguished from the Synoptic 
Gospels in various particulars, of which we note these: 
(i) John is chiefly interested in the Judean ministry of 
Jesus, while the interest of the synoptists centers in Galilee. 
Much the larger part of the common synoptic narrative deals 
with the Galilean ministry, and almost none of this is par- 
alleled in John. On the other hand, the synoptists narrate 
in detail only one visit of Jesus to Jerusalem, while John 
tells us of five such occasions. (2) John is more concerned 
with the teaching of Jesus and its interpretation than with 
an historical record of the events of Jesus' life and ministry. 
He pays little attention to sequence of happenings. He re- 
cords only those events which serve his purpose of inter- 
pretation. He alone records significant conversations of 
12 



178 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Jesus, such as that with Nicodemus and that with the woman 
of Samaria. While the synoptists tell of many miracles, 
John records comparatively few, and those almost inciden- 
tally. Curiously enough, however, John gives no account 
of the Sermon on the Mount, the teaching of which is ac- 
corded large space by Matthew and Luke. John also re- 
cords fewer of Jesus' parables than the other evangelists. 
(3) From the time of the Church Fathers the Gospel of John 
has been known as the most "spiritual" of the Gospels. The 
synoptists are content to record many incidents without com- 
ment; John is interested in discerning the spiritual meaning 
of these events. John treats the ministry in a more sub- 
jective manner than do the synoptists. 

The Synoptic Problem. The resemblances between the 
first three Gospels, noticed above, has given rise in modern 
times to inquiry into the relationship between these Gospels 
and its explanation. This question, an exceedingly interest- 
ing and intricate one, is commonly called the Synoptic Prob- 
lem. We can note only a few of the facts with w^hich schol- 
ars must deal in the investigation of the question: (i) Simi- 
larities. The synoptists have the same general outline of the 
life and ministry. Beyond this they record very largely the 
same events in these periods. This fact becomes the more 
striking when we remember that the entire record is of small 
compass, containing a mere fractional part of the Master's 
words and deeds. These common events are given in the 
same order. For the various accounts of single events the 
same form of expression is used. Not only so, but the 
similarity frequently extends to the use in common of cer- 
tain rare and unusual words. (2) Differences. Each Gospel 
is distinct in purpose, as our later study will show. Identical 
events are interpreted by the different writers in accord with 
their respective purposes. In some instances there are 
wholly independent accounts of the same event. The sum 
total of events are not identical; each Gospel is peculiar 
in having some incidents not elsewhere given, and in omit- 
ting certain incidents given by the others. Luke, for ex- 



THE GOSPELS 179 

ample, has a long section on the ministry in Perea (Luke 10: 
25 — 18: 14), which has no parallel in either of the other 
Gospels, while Matthew and Mark record a journey of Jesus 
toward Tyre and Sidon and return through Decapolis to the 
Sea of Galilee (Matt, 15:21-39; Mark 7:3i-~8:2i), to 
which Luke does not allude. 

There are certain ascertained facts which must be used 
in the working-out of any theory explanatory of these re- 
semblances and differences: (i) The Gospel of Mark is a 
common source used by both Matthew and Luke. This is 
shown by the fact that in material common to all three Gos- 
pels there is a much closer resemblance between Mark and 
Matthew and between Mark and Luke than between Mat- 
thew and Luke. (2) Before the Gospels were written oral 
tradition concerning the life and sayings of Jesus had attained 
to more or less fixed form, and this was familiar to all the 
evangelists. (3) Papias (A. D. 130) speaks of the "sayings" 
(logia) of Matthew. It is evident that Matthew, who has 
certain discourses of Jesus not given by the other evangelists, 
used this "logia" material. (4) Luke made use of a docu- 
ment dealing with the Perean ministry of Jesus, which was 
not possessed by the other evangelists. 

Beyond these outstanding facts there are many minor de- 
tails which must be taken into account in the consideration 
of the problem. Much prolonged, minute, and earnest study 
has been given to the Synoptic Problem by eminent scholars, 
but owing to its complicated nature no generally accepted 
theory has yet been proposed. 

2. The Gospel According to Matthew. 

Authorship. The book does not name its author. The 
title "According to Matthew" is not conclusive, since it might 
mean no more than that the book records the Gospels as 
preached or taught by Matthew. There is decisive internal 
evidence that the author is a Jew. Of the four Gospels, this 
has a distinctively Jewish tone. Note the genealogies of the 



i8o THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

first chapter, by which the ancestry of Jesus is traced through 
David to Abraham, the father of the faithful. The genealog- 
ical list is divided into three groups, of twice seven generations 
each, revealing the Jewish fondness for the numbers three 
and seven. There are other marked illustrations in the book 
of this same favoritism for these numbers. The phrase, "that 
it might be fulfilled which was spoken through the prophet," 
occurs again and again. The writer shows an intimate fa- 
miliarity with Jewish customs, laws, history, and with the 
Old Testament Scriptures. This testimony to Jewish author- 
ship is so abundant as to lead to common assent on this 
point. Tradition declares that this Jewish author was Mat- 
thew the apostle. This is concurred in by practically all 
students of the New Testament. Interesting corroboration 
is found in the detail with which this Gospel deals with what- 
ever relates to the former office of Matthew. Here alone is 
found (17:24-27) the incident concerning the payment of 
the temple tax. Again, the Roman taxes were paid in denarii ; 
when the question is raised concerning the lawfulness of 
paying tribute to Caesar, Mark and Luke report Jesus as ask- 
ing for a penny, but Matthew has, "Show me the tribute 
money" (22 : 19) . Matthew alone reports the warnings of 
Jesus against false swearing, and His teaching concerning 
the vain distinctions between forms of oaths (5^33-37; 23: 
16-22). 

The Author, Very little is known concerning the early 
or later life of Matthew. Mark speaks of him as "Levi, the 
son of Alphseus." From the fact that Mark also names 
James the Less as "the son of Alphseus," it has been asserted 
by some that Matthew and James the Less were brothers, 
but this is only conjectural. Mark and Luke record his call 
from the tax collector's booth to discipleship, and also that 
he made a great feast in Jesus' honor, at which many pub- 
licans and sinners were guests (Mark 2:13-17; Luke 5: 
27-29). His name is included in the various enumerations 
of the Twelve Apostles, but not a word or act ascribed to 
him is recorded after the account of the farewell feast. He 



THE GOSPELS i8i 

shows his own modesty of disposition by omitting all ref- 
erences to this feast in his own house, and by inserting the 
words "the publican'* after his name (lo: 13), and reveals 
a fine courtesy by naming Thomas before himself in the list 
of apostles, whereas the other Gospels give the names in 
reverse order. That a man with gifts such as to fit him for 
the authorship of the first Gospel had other than an incon- 
spicuous part in the councils and activities of the apostolic 
band can not be doubted. Our lack of information concern- 
ing him but emphasizes the paucity of the records of the 
Apostolic Age. 

Purpose, The book consists almost wholly of reports of 
the deeds and discourses of Jesus. The writer has inserted 
no argument in words of his own, and has almost no com- 
ment or connecting narrative. Clearly the purpose is other 
than to present a biography of Jesus, although this might 
be inferred as the aim at first glance. Careful study shows 
that the author is using his biographical and historical ma- 
terial in support of an unexpressed thesis. This was a com- 
mon literary procedure of the time which finds illustration 
elsewhere in the New Testament. This argumentative pur- 
pose is clearly, briefly, and comprehensively stated by Pro- 
fessor Burton: "To prove that Jesus is the true Messiah of 
the Jews; that He announced and founded the kingdom of 
God, expounding its true nature and setting forth its rela- 
tion to the Old Testament religion; that He came, first of 
all, to the Jewish nation; that, when they showed signs of 
a disposition not to receive His message. He warned them 
that the consequence of such rejection would be that the 
kingdom would be taken from them; that, in fact, they did 
in the face of all this warning and instruction reject Jesus 
and put Him to death; and that, consequently, the kingdom 
ceased to be in any distinctive sense Jewish, and in place 
of the old national dispensation there was created by Jesus 
Himself, the true Jewish Messiah, a kingdom of all nations; 
thus universal Christianity, freed from all national restric- 
tions or peculiarly Jewish institutions, becomes the true sue- 



i82 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

cesser of the Old Testament religion; the true Jew must 
be a follower of Jesus, and, in consequence, leave Judaism 
behind." (A Short Introduction to the Gospels, p, i6.) 

Contents and Characteristics, Matthew begins his Gospel 
with a genealogy of Jesus, gives an account of the birth and 
infancy, of the ministry of John, and of the baptism and 
temptation of Jesus ; narrates at length the events of the 
Galilean ministry, devotes a brief section to the Perean min- 
istry, and in conclusion gives with considerable fullness the 
narrative of Passion Week and the Resurrection. Certain 
sections of the narrative are peculiar to the first Gospel. 
Ten of the parables, also, are found only in Matthew, as four 
events of the infancy, numerous incidents of the Passion 
Week and of the Resurrection, and various miscellaneous 
passages. A notable phrase, which occurs no less than thirty- 
two times, found nowhere else in the New Testament, is, 
"the Kingdom of the Heavens." Matthew is also the only 
one of the evangelists to speak of "the Church." 

In accord with his argumentative purpose, Matthew pays 
little attention to chronology in arranging his narrative of 
events. He is interested in subjects rather than in order 
of events. 

Matthew presents Jesus in His kingly aspects. He is the 
Messiah, the promised King, who founds the Kingdom of 
the Heavens, and in the future age shall reign triumphant. 

In this Gospel we see, as nowhere else, the severity and 
sternness of Jesus. For example, the seven woes pronounced 
against the scribes and Pharisees (23 : 13-36) are recorded 
by Matthew alone. 

There is a universal aspect to the Gospel which has 
been often overlooked. In the genealogy the names of four 
women, Gentiles, are introduced. Magi, Gentiles, come to 
do homage to the infant King. "Many shall come from 
the east and the west, and shall sit down with Abraham, 
and Isaac, and Jacob, in the kingdom of heaven" (8:11). 
Tyre and Sidon, heathen cities, shall be visited with lighter 



THE GOSPELS 183 

punishment in the day of judgment than Chorazin, Beth- 
saida, and Capernaum (11:20-24). Finally, it is only Mat- 
thew who records the Great Commission to the disciples to 
"Go . . . and make disciples of all the nations" (28: 19). 

3. The Gospel According to Mark. 

Authorship. The second Gospel nowhere names its 
author, nor so much as gives a hint by which he may be 
identified. In this instance, therefore, it only remains for 
us to rest back upon the tradition of the early Church. Two 
names are associated by tradition with the Gospel — Mark 
and Peter. It is commonly held that, while Mark was the 
author, he was dependent to a considerable extent upon the 
apostle for the materials of his narrative, and that this 
Gospel in a peculiar sense shows the influence of Peter. 
Various explanations have been offered of the fact that the 
Gospel makes no mention of Peter's walking on the water 
(Matt. 14:29), nor of the incident concerning the tribute 
money, in which Peter figures most conspicuously (Matt. 
17:24-27), and omits both Jesus' statement that He had 
prayed especially for him (Luke 22:32) and that other 
striking statement addressed to Peter as the rock (Matt. 
16:18). 

Author. Mark is frequently named in the narratives of 
Acts and in the Epistles of Paul. He is sometimes called 
Mark (Acts 15:29; Col. 4:10; 2 Tim. 4:11), sometimes 
John Mark (Acts 12: 12, 25), and at other times John (Acts 
13 • 5> 13)- He does not appear in the pages of the Gospel 
which bears his name, unless, as has sometimes been con- 
jectured, he is the unknown young man who followed Jesus 
on the night of the betrayal (14:51, 52), or "the man bear- 
ing a pitcher of water" (14: 13). He was a Jew by birth, a 
cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4: 10), and son of a certain Mary, 
whose house was a meeting-place of the disciples (Acts 
12: 12). 

Purpose. That the author of this Gospel has Gentiles 



i84 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

principally in mind as readers appears from the fact that 
when he speaks of Jewish customs he carefully explains 
them, and that when he uses an Aramaic term he interprets 
it. Moreover, he makes very slight use of quotations from 
the Old Testament, scarcely alludes to the Jewish law, and 
does not dwell at all on the relation of Jesus to the Old 
Testament religion and the prophecies. 

The author's conception of Jesus is expressed in the 
opening sentence of the Gospel, "The beginning of the Gos- 
pel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God." The first incident 
introduced is that of the baptism, in which a Voice from 
the heavens declares, "Thou art My beloved Son." These 
sentences may be understood to present the writer's thesis. 
He does not proceed to establish it by arguments of his 
own, but presents a concise, lifelike picture of the person, 
the character, and the ministry of Jesus, trusting that as 
by His life and works Jesus produced the conviction in His 
disciples that He was the Christ, the Son of God, so his 
portrayal of the life and deeds of the Master will produce 
a like faith in his readers. "The prevailing aspect in which 
the second Gospel sets forth its subject is that of *the Son 
of God with power' moving among men with His gift of 
miracle, and making the things of nature the servants of 
His grace." — S almond. 

Contents and Character, The chief interest of Mark is 
with the public ministry of Jesus. He has no mention what- 
ever of the ancestry, the birth, and the childhood. Touching 
in a brief paragraph upon the ministry of John the Baptist, 
the baptism of Jesus and His temptation, he plunges at once 
into a narrative of the Galilean ministry, the account of 
which forms the major portion of his book. He omits all 
but one of the greater discourses of Jesus, and gives small 
attention to the parables. He concludes his Gospel with an 
account of the events of Passion V/eek and the Resurrection. 

The second Gospel has the charm of simplicity. It is 
singularly free from rhetorical embellishment. It is a direct, 



THE GOSPELS 185 

simple, straight-forward narrative of events. There is no 
waste of words. Yet it is peculiarly vivid. It has many re- 
alistic touches, expressions as to time, place, number, man- 
ner, which enable the reader to reproduce the scene or in- 
cident clearly in his thought. 

The narrative is terse and rapid. Its key-word is 
"straightway," which occurs not less than forty-two times. 
There is no impression of haste, but rather of continual 
action, intensity, a ceaseless energy. 

The impression made is of an orderly sequence. There 
is no arrangement of material according to subject, but 
rather a flowing narrative of events, apparently much in the 
order in which they occurred. 

Mark presents Jesus not as the Teacher, but as the Doer. 
Concern is not so much with what He says as with what 
He does. He is not here King of the Jews, but the Master 
of all men and the Lord of nature. He makes no assertion 
of right or of power, but men and demons bow before Him, 
and all nature obeys His will. He is Master and Lord not 
because of supernatural origin or claim, but because of what 
He is and what He does. The Christ of Mark moves among 
men on the common plane of every-day life, a man of his 
own times; but men hear from Him words such as man 
never spoke before, see in Him a love and benevolence, a 
purity and virtue never known before, and behold exhibited 
by Him a power that compels the verdict, "Surely this man 
was the Son of God." 

4. The Gospel According to Luke. 

Authorship. If the testimony of the early Church be given 
credence, there can be little question concerning the author- 
ship of the third Gospel. Until the end of the ninth cen- 
tury there was no questioning of the unanimous opinion that 
Luke, the companion of Paul, who is mentioned in Colossians 
4: 14; 2 Timothy 4: 11, and Philemon 24, is the author. Har- 
nack calls attention to the fact that the book, being addressed 



1 86 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

to a certain individual, must have had a title, and asserts 
that if this title had ever been changed there would have 
been allusions made to the change by early writers. Aside 
from the title there is little evidence to be found in the book 
itself as to authorship. The third Gospel and Acts have a 
common dedication to one Theophilus. Aside from this, the 
two works have so much in common that there is general 
agreement among scholars that both are by the same author. 
The reasons for holding that Luke wrote the Acts (see 
P- 195) > therefore become reasons for believing him to be 
the author also of the third Gospel. 

Author. Luke is mentioned by name in the New Testa- 
ment onh^- in the three instances named above. He was a 
Gentile, born probably in Antioch. He was a physician, and 
this indicates that he belonged to the middle class, and that 
he was a man of learning and culture, a fact substantiated 
by his literary style. Renan declared that this Gospel was 
the most beautiful book ever written. Luke became a com- 
panion of Paul on the apostle's missionary journeyings, and 
was with him in both his first and second imprisonment in 
Rome. 

Purpose. In his preface Luke distinctly indicates his pri- 
mary purpose in writing his Gospel. It is that Theophilus, 
to whom the book is addressed, may have an accurate and 
orderly account of that which he has previously received 
orally. Theophilus was probably a Gentile convert who de- 
sired to know more than was customarily taught the cate- 
chumens. Luke undoubtedly had also in view in writing a 
class of readers of whom Theophilus was fairly representa- 
tive. 

Contents and Characteristics. We have in Luke an ac- 
count of the birth and infancy of Jesus peculiar to the third 
Gospel; an account of the Galilean ministry, in which the 
author has evidently used Mark, nearly three-fourths of 
Mark's material being reproduced; an account of the Perean 
ministry found only in this Gospel, and a narrative of the 



THE GOSPELS 187 

events of Passion Week and of the Resurrection, which has 
some particulars not recorded by Mark or Matthew. 

Luke's is the longest of the four Gospels ; in addition to 
the long section on the Perean ministry he has eleven par- 
ables and the account of six miracles, not given elsewhere in 
the New Testament. 

The language of Luke is colored by his medical training. 
Hobart, in an exhaustive study of the Gospel, prepared a 
long list of Greek medical terms which in the New Testa- 
ment are found solely or chiefly in Luke. It is also true 
that he possesses a wider general vocabulary than any other 
New Testament writer, and uses a great many words pe- 
culiar to himself. He portrays Jesus as the great physician, 
healer of the bodies, as well as the souls, of men. At Naza- 
reth, at the beginning of His ministry, Jesus declares that 
it is a part of His mission "to preach . . . recovering 
of sight to the blind, and to set at liberty them that are 
bruised" (4^ iS). In his discourse on this occasion he quotes 
the proverb, "Physician, heal thyself" (4:23). His miracles 
are largely miracles of healing; of the six mentioned above 
as peculiar to the third Gospel, five are miracles of physical 
healing. 

In the literature of the early Church the symbol of the 
ox is frequently applied to the Gospel of Luke. This sym- 
bolism is fit as bringing out the emphasis of Luke upon 
the patience, the gentleness, and the long-suffering of Jesus. 
Luke also dwells upon the sympathy and compassion of 
Jesus for the outcast; he only has given to us the parable 
of the prodigal (15: 11-32), the story of the good Samaritan 
(10:25-37), the incident of the visit to Zaccheus, the pub- 
lican (19: i-io), the anointing of Jesus by the sinful woman 
in the house of Simon the leper (7:36-50), the assurance 
of pardon to the believing thief (23:39-43), and other in- 
cidents which have brought comfort to many weak and err- 
ing yet penitent hearts through the Christian centuries. 

Women are singularly prominent in the narratives of 



i88 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Luke. How prophetic of the place to be occupied by woman 
in the future activities of the Christian Church! And what 
a contrast to the regard in which woman was held in the 
civilization of the day! Only in the Gospel of Luke do we 
meet certain women who early became believers and faithful 
disciples of Jesus and remained loyal to him through the 
darkest hours. 

The third Gospel is rich in social teachings. No other 
Gospel has so much to say about money; no other points 
out so clearly the danger and the abuses of riches; no other 
gives so fully the warnings of Jesus to the rich, and His 
condemnation of injustice, oppression, and the misuse of 
power. Nowhere else is His sympathy for the poor and 
the oppressed so fully shown. 

Luke, as Mark, makes us acquainted with the man Jesus. 
The secrets of His inner life are made known. For ex- 
ample. His habit of prayer is revealed to us. In many in- 
stances, not elsewhere recorded, we find Jesus engaging in 
prayer to His Father, and we come to realize His great 
dependence upon prayer, and find in it one secret of His 
power. For Him the way of access to God is always open; 
at any time it is possible for Him freely to talk with God, 
and in such communion to find the answer to His deepest 
needs. 

The Christ of Luke is a fellowman living a man's life, 
subject to man's physical infirmities, tempted like as other 
men are, filled with compassion for the ills, the weaknesses, 
and the sorrows of all mankind, ever busy healing the 
bodies of men, and speaking to them the good tidings of 
the kingdom of God; a man, yet so filled with the Holy 
Spirit, of such power, of such nobility, of such glory, that 
those who entered into most intimate fellowship with Him 
felt that He was more than they, and from calling Him 
Master and Teacher came from inward compulsion to hail 
Him as Lord, as Christ the Chosen, the Son of God. 

Perhaps the most significant aspect of the Gospel of Luke 



THE GOSPELS 189 

remains to be noted; that is, the universal human note 
which it has. The ancestry of Jesus is traced back not to 
David or to Abraham, but to Adam, "the son of God,'* and 
thus Jesus is identified with the universal human family, 
which is itself the offspring of God. Luke only records that 
the preaching of John the Baptist re-echoed the faith of the 
prophet that "all flesh shall see the salvation of God" (3: 
S-6) ; in his record of the first teaching of Jesus he shows 
that Jesus dwelt upon the ministry of Elijah and Elisha to 
Gentiles (4:25-27), and he closes his Gospel by quoting as 
among the last words of the Savior the statement that "re- 
pentance and remission of sins should be preached in His 
name unto all the nations" (24:47). Luke and Paul, the 
apostolic herald of a world-wide Gospel, were truly of kin- 
dred spirit. 

5. The Gospel According to John. 

Authorship, The fourth Gospel was uniformly attributed 
to the Apostle John by the early Church, and this was 
practically undisputed until the close of the eighteenth cen- 
tury. During the last one hundred and twenty-five years, 
however, this Gospel has been the center of intense contro- 
versy. The marked differences between the synoptics and 
the fourth Gospel in the report of Jesus' sayings and in His 
discourses, the entirely different point of view represented 
by the Gospel, have been made the basis of contentions that 
this Gospel can not have proceeded from an eyewitness of 
the ministry, and from a co-worker with the other three 
evangelists who must have been acquainted with their ac- 
counts. These objections have prompted the most scholarly, 
intense, and prolonged study of the Gospel, and research 
into the whole subject, which in its turn has served to em- 
phasize with new force the facts that the Gospel gives un- 
mistakable evidence of having been written by a Jew of 
Jesus' own time, and of being the work of an eye-witness 
of the events which are narrated. It is generally conceded 
that it was written later than the Synoptic Gospels, that 



190 



THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 



the narrative was shaped somewhat to accord with an apolo- 
getic purpose, that more of the writer's personality entered 
into his writing than in the case of the other evangelists, 
and that the Gospel bears evidences of some additions (note 
especially 21 : 1-25) by a later hand. These conclusions do 
not interfere at all with the life-long faith of the Church 
that in the fourth Gospel we have an account of the per- 
sonality, the life events, and the teaching of Jesus by that 
disciple, who by his intimacy with and understanding of 
the Master was best fitted to prepare such a record for 
future years. 

Author. John never mentions himself by name in the 
course of his whole narrative — nor does he name his par- 
ents or his brother. From the Synoptic Gospels, however, 
we learn that John was a Galilean; that with his brother 
James he was a son of Zebedee, that the mother's name was 
Salome, that the family lived at Bethsaida near Capernaum, 
that the sons and the father were fishermen on the Sea 
of Galilee, and that they had boats, nets, hired servants, and 
a house of their own. There is exceedingly little infor- 
mation concerning the later life of John. In connection 
with the Council of Jerusalem, Paul speaks of him as one 
of the pillars of the Jerusalem Church. There is a wide- 
spread tradition that he lived in his old age at Ephesus, 
revered and beloved by all. 

John was one of the innermost circle of Jesus' disciples 
(Mark 10:2; :^:7; Luke 6:14; Acts 1:13). He was in the 
death-chamber of the child of Jairus (Luke 8:51), he was 
one of the company who witnessed the transfiguration (Matt. 
17: i), with Peter he was sent by Jesus to prepare the 
Passover (Luke 22:8), with Peter and James he witnessed 
the agony in Gethsemane (Mark 14:33), and to him 
Jesus on the cross committed the care of His mother (John 
19:25-27). This intimacy, together with his alert and 
eager spirit, his profound and contemplative mind, his tender 
and delicate sensibility, his capacity for friendship, for 



THE GOSPELS 191 

rove, and for intense devotion enabled him to understand 
Jesus better than any of his fellows. Says Augustine: "For 
not without reason is it mentioned in his own Gospel that 
at the feast he reclined upon the bosom of his Lord. From 
that bosom he had in secrecy drunk in the stream, but what 
he drank in secret he poured forth openly." 

John has rightfully been known throughout the history 
of the Church as the apostle of love, but this has sometimes 
been misinterpreted. He was farthest possible removed from 
the soft and effeminate character pictured under his name in 
the Middle Ages. The Gospels show us a man of courage, of 
moral strength, with capacity for heroic deeds. John and 
James were called by Jesus, Boanerges, sons of thunder, be- 
cause of their inner fire and the prophetic energy of their 
natures. John was ready of word, quick in action, sometimes 
vehement in speech. He speaks forth as no other evangelist 
the wrath of God against sin and evildoing (3:18, 2l^\ 
5:29), and on more than one occasion showed his capacity 
for fiery indignation (Luke 9:49; 9:51-55). Altogether 
he was a rare and unusual figure, of brilliant gifts and at- 
tractive personality, a man of intense zeal and intellectual 
power, who magnified the gospel by his character as by 
his deeds, without whom the apostolic company would have 
been sadly incomplete, and well-deserving of that highest 
title— "John the beloved." 

Purpose. John states the purpose of his writing in 20: 31. 
It is in order that men may be strengthened in their belief 
that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that, thus 
believing, they may continue to have life through Him. 

Contents and Characteristics, The omissions of John's 
Gospel are many and striking. He has no account of the 
miraculous birth or the infancy of Jesus, or of His family. 
His genealogy, or of His youth. He only touches on the 
ministry of John the Baptist, and omits all mention of the 
baptism of Jesus, the temptation, the transfiguration, the in- 
stitution of the Lord's Supper, the agony in the garden, and 



192 



THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 



the ascension. His Gospel has nothing about demons, lepers, 
or publicans. Properly speaking, it has no parables and 
no eschatology. The historical narrative is begun with an 
account of the call of the first disciples; early events in 
Judea are described; the Galilean ministry is just touched 
upon, visits to Jerusalem being given chief attention; a few 
events of the Perean ministry are narrated; some events 
of Passion Week are described fully, the occurrences of the 
day of crucifixion being given with especial 'fullness, and 
the Gospel is brought to a close by an account of the res- 
urrection and certain of the resurrection appearances. Much 
of the Gospel is taken up by conversations and discourses 
of Jesus; of those not found elsewhere there are: the con- 
versation of Nicodemus (3:1-21), the conversation with 
the woman of Samaria (4:4-26), the discourse at the heal- 
ing of the infirm man at the Pool of Bethesda (5:19-47), 
discourse on the bread of life (6:22-71), discourse on the 
light of the world (8: 12-30), discourse on spiritual freedom 
(8:31-51), discourse on the good shepherd (10:1-21), and 
the farewell discourse to His disciples (14:1 — 16:33). The 
intercessory prayer of Jesus is also found only in John 
(17: 1-26). The Gospel records only eight miracles, of which 
six are not elsewhere given. 

A distinguishing characteristic of the fourth Gospel is 
the writer's comment or interpretation of Jesus' words. This 
is often so interwoven with his narrative that it is difficult 
to discern where direct quotation ends and his own state- 
ment begins. Due appreciation of this characteristic and 
attention to it is important to the study and understanding 
of the Gospel. Some examples of this are : 2:21; 2 : 23-25 ; 
6:6, 64; 7:39. 

John's Gospel emphasizes the Fatherhood of God. Jesus 
here speaks of God and addresses God as Father. Instances 
are: 4:23; 5:6, 19, 26; 10:17; 17:24, 26. In accord with 
this the Gospel dwells upon the love of God (3:17; 14:21, 
23; 16:27). 

The symbol of the Fourth Gospel in the literature of 



I 



THE GOSPELS 193 

the early Church was the flying eagle. John rises to loftier 
heights than any other Gospel writer. His Gospel has a 
sublimity, a reach, a spirituality that none other has. Said 
Augustine, "While the three evangelists remained below with 
the man Christ Jesus, and speak but little about His God- 
head, John, as though impatient of treading the earth, rises 
from the very first word of his Gospel not only above the 
birds, the air, and the sky, but above angels and celestial 
powers, into the very presence of Him by whom all things 
were made." In this Gospel we are constantly in the pres- 
ence of the Christ of God. Jesus walks among men as a 
man, speaks with a man's voice, feels weariness and pain, 
is truly a human being; but John will not for a moment 
allow us to forget that we are in the presence of the Son 
of God. 

The Gospel of John speaks to the deep reaches of the 
human heart. It has a charm and a power of attraction 
that is all its own. It is the Gospel of mystics. It has 
cheered the lonely, comforted the sorrowing, encouraged the 
despairing, strengthened the dying, through all the Christian 
centuries. It speaks a language "to which no parallel what- 
ever is to be found in the whole compass of literature." It 
makes men sure of God. Error and sin and unbelief can 
not stand in its light. It sings the Orphean song of heavenly 
life and love, in comparison with which all siren music of 
evil is but dismal discord. 

The importance of John's Gospel can hardly be overesti- 
mated. In it we have a view of Jesus which we get no- 
where else. Many hold that it presents the highest and 
truest revelation of Jesus ever given to His followers. To 
those who bring to it an unprejudiced mind and a receptive 
heart it bears a wonderful message of things divine, a mes- 
sage which can not be ignored. "If the Son of God did 
say and do things recorded in this document, then everything 
in the universe, every fact in the history of the world, the 
conclusions of all philosophy, the meaning of all scientific 

13 



194 



THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 



discovery, the future of the world, and the goal of humanity 
must be affected by its disclosures." — Reynolds, 

Lesson Outline: 

How the New Testament came to be. 
The language of the New Testament. 
The Four Gospels ; the word "Gospel ;** resemblances and 

differences ; the synoptic problem. 
The Gospel according to Matthew. 
The Gospel according to Mark. 
The Gospel according to Luke. 
The Gospel according to John. 



Books for Reference : 

Burton, "A Short Introduction to the Gospels." 
Dods, "Introduction to the New Testament." 
Farrar, "Messages of the Books." 
Hazzard-Fowler, "The Books of the Bible." 
Hastings, "One Volume Dictionary of the Bible." See ar- 
ticles on the various subjects. 
Commentaries : Matthew, Allen, "International Critical Com- 
mentary on Matthew;" Mark, Swete, "The Gospel Ac- 
cording to St. Mark;" Luke, Plummer, "International 
Critical Commentary on Luke;" John, Westcott, "St. 
John's Gospel," in the Bible Commentary Series. 

Topics for Special Study : 

1. The literary forms of the New Testament as compared 

with the Old Testament. 

2. The language of the New Testament, 

3. The resemblances and differences of the Synoptic Gospels 

in detail. 

4. The teaching of Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels. 

5. The parables of Jesus. 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. How do we come to have a New Testament? 

2. How account for the similarities between the first three 

Gospels ? 

3. Which Gospel gives the most complete account of the life 

of Jesus? 

4. What evidences are to be found in John of the report of 

an eye-witness? 

5. Compare Jesus' teachings concerning Himself in the 

Synoptic Gospels and in John. 



I 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE ACTS AND THE BEGInSsTINGS OF 
CHRISTIANITY 

I. The Acts of the Apostles. 

The Book of Acts stands alone in the New Testament 
as a history of the Early Christian Church. Moreover, it 
IS the one book of the New Testament purely historical in 
character. 

Authorship, Certain parts of the book, called technically 
the "we sections," are in the first person and are clearly the 
language of an eye-witness. These sections must, therefore, 
have been written by a companion of Paul. There is strong 
reason to hold on the basis of similarity of language and 
style that the entire book is from one hand. The only com- 
panion of Paul of whom we know, not excluded by the evi- 
dence of the apostle's letters, is Luke. The tradition of the 
Church from an early period agrees in assigning the author- 
ship to Luke, "the beloved physician." 

Purpose, The book is addressed to an individual, The- 
ophilus, as a continuation of a former treatise (the third 
Gospel), and has for its aim to chronicle the growth and 
development of the movement inaugurated by Jesus in sub- 
stantiation of His promise of power to His disciples and in 
obedience to His direction to them that they should be His 
witnesses in Jerusalem, in Judea, in Samaria, and to the ut- 
termost parts of the earth. 

Content and Character. Acts is divided into two parts. 
The first part, chapters i to 12, is a narrative of the growth 
of the Church in Jerusalem and from Jerusalem as a center. 

195 



196 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Peter is the central figure, and the general theme is the tri- 
umphant progress of the gospel in spite of all opposition and 
persecution. The second part, chapters 12 to 28, relates the 
history of the extension of the Church throughout the em- 
pire. Antioch is the center, and the narrative deals almost 
altogether with the labors of Paul. We will become ac- 
quainted with the content of this second part in our later 
study of the Life of Paul (Chapters XVIII and XIX). An 
outline of the first half of the book is as follows: 

Contents of Part I. 

Introduction i : i — 2 : 13 

Prefatory statement i ^ i-5 

The Ascension of the Lord 1:5-11 

Enumeration of the Apostles i : 12-14 

Choice of Matthias as Apostle i : 15-26 

The Gift of the Spirit 2 : 1-13 

1. The Growth of the Church in Jerusalem. . .2 : 14 — 6 : 7 

Sermon of Peter on the Day of Pentecost ; 

three thousand added to the Church. . .2 : 14-41 
Summary statement concerning progress and 

state of the Church 2 : 42-47 

The lame man healed 3 : i-io 

Sermon of Peter in Solomon's porch 3:11-26 

First persecution 4:1-31 

Summary statement concerning progress and 

state of the Church ; hypocrites punished 

by death 4 : 32 — 5 : 16 

Second stage of persecution 5 : 17-42 

Summary statement concerning progress and 

state of the Church; deacons appointed. . .6:1-7 
Third stage of persecution; Stephen stoned, 

6:8—8:3 

2. Extension of the gospel from Jerusalem. .8 : 4 — 12 : 24 

Philip's ministry in Samaria 8:4-13 

Ministry of Peter and John in Samaria 8 : 14-25 

Philip extends his work; the Ethiopian con- 
verted 8 : 26-40 

The conversion of Saul 9 : 1-30 

Summary statement concerning progress and 

state of the Church 9'3i 

Peter extends his ministry to Lydda and 

Joppa 9 : 32 — 10 : 48 

Peter's defense of his ministry to the Gen- 
tiles 11: 1-18 

Beginning of the Gospel in Antioch 11 : 19-30 



BEGINNINGS OF CHRISTIANITY 197 

Fourth stage of persecution ; Herod, the king, 
kills James and imprisons Peter ; Peter 
delivered by the Lord, and Herod smit- 
ten 12 : 1-23 

Summary statement concerning the triumph- 
ant progress of the Word 12 : 24 

The book is not at all intended to be a complete account 
of tBe labors of the apostles or of the history of the Early 
Church. The author limits himself by his specific purpose 
and is satisfied to establish his contention by a narrative of 
parts of the personal history and a part of the activity of 
some of the apostles. It is an invaluable part of the New 
Testament; it alone gives us an account of the gift of the 
Spirit on the day of Pentecost, of the early progress and 
vicissitudes of the gospel in Jerusalem and among the Jewish 
people, of the earliest persecutions of the Christians, of the 
first martyrs of the faith, of the first Gentile convert, and 
of the beginnings of ecclesiastical organization. Considered 
as a history of the period, it is as remarkable for what it 
omits as for what it narrates. It omits all account of the 
ministry of a number of the apostles, of the later ministry 
of Peter, and of the death of Paul. We know from state- 
ments in Paul's letters that there are many important events 
of his missionary labors that are unmentioned in the Acts. 

Investigations of recent years have confirmed the historical 
accuracy of Acts in a remarkable way. It has been proven^ 
that in minute details of geographical description, by the ex- 
pert testing of his statements, that Luke was careful and 
exact, and that he possessed and used an accurate knowledge 
of political conditions. These investigations and resulting 
conclusions have strengthened confidence in the account which 
he gives of religious events and the early progress of the 
Church. 

II. The Apostolic Church. 

The Founding of the Church. Jesus did not Himself form 
an organization. He drew disciples about Him, centered their 
faith in Him as a religious teacher, as the promised Messiah 



198 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

and the Son of God, committed to them His gospel, and gave 
them their commission of world evangelization; but He 
formed no separate or distinct organization. He set apart 
by His own appointment twelve of their number as apostles 
to be in a special sense His representatives and the leaders 
of the new movement; but neither the apostles nor the larger 
body of disciples fully realized either their call or their mis- 
sion. The crucifixion of the Master came as a bitter disap- 
pointment to their hopes and resulted in their complete dis- 
couragement and confusion. It was the resurrection more 
than anything else which clarified their conceptions of Jesus 
and the kingdom, begat in them a realization of their mission, 
unified them as a com.pany of believers, and gave them their 
word of testimony to the world. Christianity as an historical 
movement had its beginning when the disciples of Jesus be- 
came convinced of the resurrection of Jesus Christ. The 
Christian Church was born at the empty tomb of Jesus of 
Nazareth. The picture which meets us in the first chapters 
of Acts is that of a Church, and it is new; we do not find it 
anywhere in the Gospels. We have no account of any formal 
organization. There was no stated meeting with the passage 
of resolutions, the adoption of a constitution, and the election 
of officers. The organization was effected in the councils of 
heaven, not of earth ; the resurrection was the means by which 
it became known and understood by the disciples. At first 
it was a waiting Church; along with the new consciousness 
of being there went a sense of unreadiness. The fitting for 
its world work came in the gift of the Spirit on the day of 
Pentecost. 

Early History of the Church in Jerusalem, The first meet- 
ings of the infant Church were for prayer (1:14). At one 
of these meetings Peter proposed the selection of one to take 
the place of Judas in the apostolate. After prayer Matthias 
was selected by lot (i : 15-26). The gift of the Spirit appears 
to have taken place in the early morning of the day of Pente- 
cost. Immediately thereafter Peter preached to the multitude, 



k' 



BEGINNINGS OF CHRISTIANITY 199 



and on that day three thousand received baptism and joined 
themselves to the disciples. From that time on the growth 
of the Church was continuous (2: 1-47). Peter and John are 
associated as the leaders of the work, with Peter as chief 
spokesman. Peter heals the lame man at the door of the 
temple, preaches to the multitude who gather about, and on 
the following day defends the deed before the Jewish rulers 
(3: 1-26; 4: 5-12). In the first stages of persecution the Sad- 
ducees appear as the active agents; they were offended at the 
proclamation of the resurrection of Jesus and made a pre- 
tended zeal for public order a cloak for this prejudice. The 
apostles were, in a first instance, given a public hearing, com- 
manded to cease preaching in the name of Jesus, threatened, 
and dismissed; on a second occasion they were only saved 
from severe punishment by the plea of Gamaliel (4:1-21; 
5: 17-42). But persecution only deepened their sense of obli- 
gation to declare their message (4:18-31; 5:27-32, 41, 42). 

Luke records only occasional incidents of special signifi- 
cance in relation to his theme and passes over long intervals 
of intervening time by brief summary statements, sometimes, 
however, incorporating in these accounts of noteworthy 
events; such, for example, as the stern rebuke of hypocrisy 
by the death of Ananias and Sapphira (5:1-16), and the 
appointment of the Seven (6:1-6). 

Stephen appears to have possessed and preached a con- 
ception of the universal aspect of Christianity; as soon as 
this was declared, the Pharisees, zealous as they were for the 
Law, were aroused and joined with the Sadducees in oppo- 
sition to the Christians; this new stage of persecution result- 
ing in the killing of Stephen and scattering the disciples 
throughout Judea and Samaria (6:8 — 8:3). 

Growth of the Church under Persecution. Thus early in 
the history of the Church was it demonstrated that "the blood 
of the martyrs is the seed of the Church." The spirit of the 
persecuted Christians could not be daunted, and everywhere 
they went they preached the Good News of the kingdom, with 



200 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE l 

the result that groups of believers came to exist in many 
different places throughout Judea, Samaria, Phoenicia, even 
to Cyprus and Antioch. Luke's narrative describes only a few 
signal demonstrations of the gospel's power in the ministry 
of two of the leaders, Peter and Philip. The success of Philip 
in Samaria appears to have been immediate and far-reaching 
(8:4-25). The narrative of the meeting of Philip with the 
Ethiopian is of especial significance as showing how the gos- 
pel was carried into foreign parts by the Jewish proselytes 
who came to Jerusalem to worship (8:26-40). 

Extension of the Gospel to Gentiles, The ministry of 
Peter at Caesarea precipitated the question, on the one hand, 
of the relation of the gospel to the Gentiles, and, on the other, 
the relation of the new faith to Judaism. Here were ques- 
tions of the largest importance, questions which involved the 
whole future of the Church, which had not before apparently 
been suggested to the leaders of the new movement. It is 
evident that Peter's experience as a follower of Jesus Christ 
had with him tended to minify the Levitical distinctions of 
which loyal Jews made so much, for at Joppa he lodged with 
a Jew who was a tanner, and therefore, according to Levitical 
teaching, unclean. Perhaps his intercourse with Simon 
brought the whole subject to his consideration; at any rate 
there came to him a vision, the meaning of which he under- 
stood to be that God wished him to disregard these distinc- 
tions which previously he had held as a part of sacred law.. 
This vision prepared him to receive hospitably the urgent 
call of Cornelius, a devout Gentile. In the house of Cor- 
nelius he justified his presence by the announcement of what 
was from the standpoint of Judaism a revolutionary doctrine : 
''Unto me hath God showed that I should not call any man 
common or unclean." The approval of God upon his course 
was demonstrated by what was almost a complete repetition 
of the occurrences of Pentecost: "The Holy Spirit fell on 
all them that heard the Word," and the Gentiles spake "with 
tongues" and magnified God. This was a cause of amazement 



BEGINNINGS OF CHRISTIANITY 201 

to the Jewish companions of Peter. No doubt some had in- 
ward misgivings ; but under the circumstances, who could 
have dared to accept the challenge of Peter, "Can any man 
forbid the water, that these should not be baptized, who have 
received the Holy Spirit as well as we?" It was inevitable 
that the report of Peter's course should provoke controversy 
in Jerusalem. Doubtless many did not at first understand 
the reason for Peter's disregard of Jewish law and custom. 
When he had fully related the circumstances, the objectors 
were — for the time being, at least — silenced. Some rejoiced, 
being convinced that "to the Gentiles also hath God granted 
repentance unto life" (11:1-18). But Jewish prejudice was 
exceedingly strong and deep, and this question of the call 
of the Gentiles and the conditions under which they should 
be admitted to the Church was one upon which there was 
to be prolonged and serious controversy. 

Antioch early became a prominent center of gospel activity. 
A large number of Gentiles accepted the faith. When word 
of the ingathering reached Jerusalem, Barnabas was sent forth 
to minister to the new converts. He in turn sought out Saul, 
and together these two gave themselves for a year to the 
instruction and nurture of the young Gentile Church. This 
Church has especial interest for us, not only because it was 
the first well-known Gentile Church, but also because here 
followers of the Christ first came to be called Christians 
(11 : 19-26). 

Organisation and Development of the Church. The Apos- 
tolic Church, as we have seen, began as a society within the 
Jewish Church. The first Christians remained loyal to Juda- 
ism and its institutions, but they held that, the Messiah hav- 
ing come, obedience to the law was no longer sufficient to 
salvation. He who would be saved must now possess faith 
in Christ, repent of his sins, and accept baptism. At first the 
disciples continued their attendance upon the temple services 
and ritual, but they also had their own meetings. They came 
together in an upper room in Jerusalem, and later, as their 



202 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

numbers increased, met in small congregations at the homes 
of certain of the members. For a considerable period of 
time they had no other meeting-places. Gradually their in- 
terest in the Jewish ordinances declined, and their observance 
of them ceased. The destruction of the temple in A. D. 70 
undoubtedly operated to develop Christianity among the Jews 
as a distinct form of worship. But it was among Gentiles, 
not Jews, that Christianity was to spread most rapidly, and 
even by the close of the apostolic period the Church was 
predominantly Gentile. 

At the beginning the believers met daily for worship. As 
their numbers multiplied and the ordinary affairs of life de- 
manded more attention, the meetings for prayer, praise, and 
preaching became less frequent. Soon the first day of the 
week came into prominence as entitled to special reverence 
and was set apart for rest and worship as the Lord's day, be- 
cause on this day their Lord had risen from the dead (see 
I Cor. 16:2; Acts 20:7; Rev. 1:10). Preaching was mag- 
nified as a means of edification in the meetings and as a 
missionary agency, but it is probable that teaching was placed 
first in importance. Jewish converts required careful instruc- 
tion, and the need was much greater in the case of Gentiles 
who embraced the faith, as many of them knew nothing of 
the Scriptures and came over to Christianity from idolatry. 

The form of organization in the Church was a gradual 
development. First in authority in the Church were the 
apostles, who had seen the Lord and had received their com- 
mission direct from Him. The entire supervision of the 
Church was at first in their hands. The earliest departure 
from this was in the appointment of "the Seven," to whom 
were committed definite duties of administration (5:3). We 
hear also of prophets (Acts 11:27; 13:1; i Cor. 12:28; 
Eph. 4:11), teachers (Acts 13:1; i Cor. 12:28), elders or 
presbyters (Acts 11:30; 15:6; 21: 18), bishops (Acts 20:28; 
Phil. I : I ; I Tim. 3:1), and deacons (Rom. 16: i ; Phil. 1:1), 
Paul's letters seem to reflect various stages of organization, 



BEGINNINGS OF CHRISTIANITY 



203 



and it IS doubtful if from the data given we can determine 
either the exact status of the various officers or the standard 
of organization aimed at by the apostles. 

The first persecution of the Church was by the Jewish 
authorities. The attitude of the Roman State was in general 
that of indifference and non-interference. In some instances 
the government protected the Church leaders and openly be- 
friended them (Acts 17:9; 19:33-41; 23:17-24). Christians 
were, therefore, friendly to the Roman power and regarded 
it as their protector. Toward the close of the apostolic pe- 
riod the spread of Christianity brought it more prominently 
to the notice of the emperor. The Roman persecutions were 
begun in the reign of Nero, the infamous. In the latest writ- 
ing of the New Testament this is reflected in the changed 
attitude of the writers. The emperor comes to be regarded 
as the representative of the powers of evil, and is referred 
to in such terms as anti-Christ. 



Lesson Outline: 

The Acts of the Apostles. 

The Apostolic Church : Founding of the Church ; early his- 
tory in Jerusalem ; growth under persecution ; extension 
of the gospel to the Gentiles; organization and develop- 
ment of the Church. 



Books for Reference : 

Farrar, "Messages of the Books." 
Bartlet, "The Apostolic Age." 
Dods, "Introduction to the New Testament." 
Hastings, "One Volume Dictionary of the Bible." 
Commentary: Lumby, "The Acts of the Apostles," in the 
Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. 

Topics for Special Study: 

1. Content of the apostolic message. 

2. The Jewish and Gentile conceptions of Christianity con- 

trasted. 

3. The Holy Spirit in the Book of Acts. 

4. The form of organization of the Apostolic Church. 

5. The history of Judaistic Christianity. 



204 



THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 



Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. In what ways did Christianity, in the beginning, differ 

from Judaism as a religion? 

2. The importance of the Resurrection to the Apostolic 

Church. 

3. The leadership of Peter among the apostles. 

4. The place of persecution in the growth of Christianity. 

5. Why did Christianity spread more rapidly among the Gen- 

tiles than among the Jews? 



CHAPTER XVIII 
THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 

Next to the Lord Jesus, Christianity owes more to the 
Apostle Paul than to any other one person. He it was who 
fashioned the Christian religion into the principal doctrinal 
forms in which it was held by the Church for centuries, who 
secured for it its first wide hearing before the Gentiles, who 
planted its churches in a score of the strategic centers of the 
great Roman Empire, and who presented to the world an 
example of such boundless energy, devotion, courage, and 
self-sacrifice as to inspire admiration in all and to beget those 
same qualities in thousands of Christian believers. 

I. Birth and Childhood. 

Paul, whose early name was Saul, was born in the latter 
part of the first decade of the Christian era in Tarsus, a large 
and commercially important city of Cilicia, in Asia Minor. 
By birth he was a Hebrew of the tribe of Benjamin, a Phari- 
see, and a Roman citizen. Beyond this very little is known 
of his parents. Paul himself never directly refers to them 
in his writings. From the educational advantages given the 
son it is inferred that they were well-to-do people. Of other 
children there were at least one; Paul's sister is referred to 
in Acts 23 : 16. 

Tarsus, in addition to its commercial interests, was the 
seat of a university of renown, and students came from all 
countries. This may have had some influence in awakening 
the mind of the Jewish lad and implanting within him the 
desire for an education. His own statement, that he was 

205 



2o6 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

"brought up in this city at the feet of Gamaliel" (Acts 22: 5), 
implies that in his later childhood, at least, his parents either 
removed to Jerusalem or sent the boy thither, that he might 
be under the teaching of the greatest Jewish rabbi of the day, 
Gamaliel, grandson of the still greater Hillel. We may be 
sure that in his childhood Paul had the advantage of the best 
Jewish home-training, which meant careful and painstaking 
religious instruction. In Tarsus, as a boy, he learned his 
trade, that of weaving Cilician goat's hair into a coarse 
fabric, which was used in the making of mats, shoes, and 
tents. Every Jewish son must needs be taught a trade, and 
this, crude and rough as it was, proved very useful to the 
persecuted apostle of later days. 

II. Education. 

Gamaliel, the leader of the more tolerant branch of the 
Pharisees, was so liberal as to introduce the Greek learning 
into his school at Jerusalem. It was undoubtedly a fortunate 
circumstance that it was in this school that the intolerant 
young Saul was placed. He made rapid progress in his 
studies, advanced beyond many of his fellow students in his 
knowledge of Judaism, and showed himself to be more ex- 
ceedingly zealous for the traditions of the fathers than they. 
(See Gal. i : 14.) The mastery of the Scriptures to which he 
attained is shown in his later writings. He is able freely to 
quote at will from any part of the Old Testament, and the 
familiar phraseology leaves its imprint frequently on his 
pages. His accurate knowledge of the law and his skill in 
the Rabbinical learning, the result of his study in the schools, 
were valuable elements in his equipment for his later contro- 
versies with the Jewish leaders. 

His Tarsian birth and Roman citizenship made contribu- 
tions to his education in the wider sense. His early associ- 
ation with the cosmopolitant life of Tarsus gave him an un- 
derstanding of Gentile thought and an insight into human 
nature in its universal aspects. A Roman was a citizen of 



LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 207 

the world, and it must needs be difficult for one who inherited 
Roman citizenship to be dominated by a narrow religious ex- 
clusiveness or by intolerant prejudices. Paul's world-vision 
was the gift of his birthplace and his birthright. His genius 
for organization was also a Roman talent. 

in. Early Career as a Pharisee and Persecutor. 

Paul first comes prominently into view in connection with 
the death of the first Christian martyr, the beloved Stephen. 
The charge made against him reminds us strongly of that 
made against Jesus. The same spirit is manifest, and in this 
case also it is allowed to work out to its conclusion, the brutal 
murder of an innocent and holy man. The ringleaders in the 
assault "laid down their garments at the feet of a young man 
named Saul,*' the statement giving us the impression that he 
was the master whose directions they obeyed and whose 
favor they coveted. From this time his madness became in- 
tensified until he himself went to the extreme length of en- 
tering into the houses of Christians, dragging out men and 
women, and delivering them into prison. He came into such 
prominence in this work that his name inspired terror in the 
hearts of the Christians everywhere; he was recognized as 
so effective a persecutor by his fellow-religionists that the 
Sanhedrin appointed him as a special agent to stamp out the 
Christian heresy in the city of Damascus. 

IV. His Gonversion and Early Christian Life. 

But God had other work than this for Saul. While on 
the way to Damascus he met with an experience that sud- 
denly and completely changed the course of his life. His 
conversion is the most striking, and the record of it given 
most fully, of any in the New Testament. The story is thrice 
told in Acts, once by the author in the course of his own 
narrative (9: 1-16), and thrice as a report of speeches made 
by Paul (22:4-16; 26:9-18). In addition Paul refers many 



2o8 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

times, directly and indirectly, to the experience in his letters. 
We can consider briefly only certain important elements of 
the conversion. 

Preparation, The occurrence seems at first glance to be 
wholly sudden. From various statements of Paul and from 
our knowledge of his early life, however, we can see how it 
was being prepared for, although doubtless unconsciously to 
Paul himself. His native bigotry and intolerance, and the 
influence of early Roman associations and of the liberal Greek 
spirit of his school life were at strife within him. Added to 
this was a deep consciousness of the inadequacy of the law 
unto salvation. Possessed of a deep moral earnestness, he 
was inwardly dissatisfied with the principle of outward con- 
formity to the law as a basis for salvation. This early con- 
sciousness of the powerlessness of the law is reflected in such 
later statements as that of Romans, chapter 7. 

Physical Accompaniments, The accounts given in the Acts 
name certain accompaniments of the conversion of Paul which 
place it in a class almost by itself. These are: "a light from 
heaven,*' "a voice/' a falling to the earth, blindness, return- 
ing sight at the laying-on of hands by Ananias. Paul lays 
no stress upon these in his own writings. We can not doubt, 
however, that it was this "light" which gave him the figure 
which he so often uses, as, for example, in i Tim. 6:16; 
Rom. 8 : 18 ; 2 Thess. 1:9-11; 2:8. 

Appearance of Jesus to Paul. The apostle is ever sure 
that in his conversion experience he saw Jesus. He did not 
account this a subjective vision, but rather speaks of it con- 
fidently as an objective appearance to him of the Risen Lord. 
In his summary account of the appearance of Christ to His 
disciples after his resurrection, he includes that to himself 
(i Cor. 15: 4-8) ; and again, he makes the fact of his having 
"seen Jesus" a mark of his apostleship (i Cor. 9:1). 

Inner Revelation. Paul lays emphasis upon the fact of 
soul experience. Most important of all statements concern- 



LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 209 

ing his conversion is that of Galatians 1:11-17. In this he 
speaks of a Providence which has been working even from 
his birth in preparing him for his ministry to the Gentiles, 
and which culminated in an inner revelation. Those words, 
*Tt was the good pleasure of God ... to reveal His Son 
in me," sound the greatest depths of Paul's conversion. 

The Importance of the Conversion. To Paul himself his 
conversion was the greatest event of his life. It was to him 
the real beginning of life. It revealed to him his former 
blindness, ignorance, and sin, and a present power unto sal- 
vation; gave him an ever-present Lord, his commission of 
world-evangelization, his authority for proclaiming His mes- 
sage, a personal assurance that was never dimmed, and a 
confidence that enabled him to stand unashamed and un- 
abashed before councils and kings. 

Events Following His Conversion. The ministry of Ana- 
nias to Paul was a means of introducing him to the Chris- 
tian community at Damascus (Acts 9:10-19). His religious 
zeal would not allow him to remain silent; immediately he 
began to proclaim in the synagogues to those whom a few 
days before he had intended to incite against the Christians 
that Jesus was the Son of God. His preaching at first pro- 
duced amazement, then consternation, conviction in some, 
and in others wrath. He who had been persecutor, now was 
persecuted and fled for his life (Acts 9:20-25). 

We might conclude from the statement of Acts (1:26) 
that Paul immediately returned to Jerusalem, but this impres- 
sion is corrected by his own special statement (Gal. 1:17) 
that he did not go to Jerusalem, but instead "into Arabia," 
and later returned to Damascus. Arabia is an indefinite term ; 
exactly where he went, and with what purpose in view, can 
only be conjectured. The common thought is that this was 
a period of retirement, affording opportunity of mental ad- 
justment, during which the new apostle was preparing him- 
self for his changed career. The length of his stay was some- 
what less than three years (Gal. 1:18). After his return 

14 



iio THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

to the scene of his conversion, Paul went up to Jerusalem, 
where his experience of persecution at Damascus was repeated 
(Acts 9:26-30). This Jerusalem visit gave Paul an oppor- 
tunity to become acquainted with Peter and, doubtless, to 
hear from his lips much of the story of the earthly life of 
Jesus. His stay in Jerusalem was brief; his fellow Christians 
prevailed upon him not to endanger his life by remaining, and, 
being escorted by them to Csesarea, he went into "the regions 
of Syria and Cilicia" (Gal. 1:18-21). There follows an ob- 
scure period of perhaps ten years ; his own statement in Gala- 
tians indicates that he was occupied in successfully preaching 
the Christian faith ; the statement of Acts 15 : 41, that on a 
later occasion Paul "went through Syria and Cilicia, confirm- 
ing the Churches," leads to the inference that these were 
Churches which he himself had founded in this early period 
of his ministry. We can not doubt that a part of this time 
was spent in labors in Tarsus, his birthplace. In Tarsus, at 
any rate, he was found by Barnabas, and summoned to An- 
tioch, in Northern Syria, to assist in the teaching and build- 
ing up in the faith of a large Church made up of Gentile 
believers. For a year Barnabas and Paul remained in An- 
tioch as co-laborers (Acts 11:25, 26). From Antioch they 
carried a contribution for famine relief to Jerusalem, and then 
finally took their leave of this mother Church of the Chris- 
tian name to embark on their wider mission (Acts 11:27-30; 
12:35). 

V. The Career of Paul as Apostle to the Gentiles. 

It is here to be recalled that with 13 : i begins the second 
part of the Book of Acts. This second half is devoted to a 
rapid sketch of the journeys and labors of Paul, and supplies 
us with our outline of his missionary career. 

I. First Missionary Journey. Certain prophets of the 
Church in Antioch became impressed that the time had come 
for Barnabas and Paul to proceed on their divinely appointed 
mission to the Gentile world. With prayer, fasting, and lay- 



LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL mt 

ing-on of hands they started them forth (Acts 13: 1-3). From 
Seleucia, the seaport of Antioch, accompanied by John Mark, 
they sailed to Cyprus, landed at Salamis, its eastern port, and 
journeyed through the whole island to Paphos, preaching as 
opportunity was had in Jewish synogogues. At Paphos they 
were summoned to attend upon Sergius Paulus, a Roman pro- 
consul. In his presence they were withstood by one Bar- 
Jesus, a representative of an Oriental cult, whom Paul con- 
troverted so successfully that the Roman official was won to 
discipleship (Acts 13:4-12). It is at this stage in the nar- 
rative that Luke substitutes, without explanation, the name 
Paul for Saul. From Paphos the party went by ship to Perga, 
on the coast of Pamphylia; where, for some reason not clear 
to us, John Mark turned back; while Paul and Barnabas 
proceeded overland to Pisidian Antioch, an important civic 
and commercial center of Asia Minor. "At Antioch and on- 
wards, Paul takes the lead in speech and action. 'Barnabas 
and Saur set out on the expedition; *Saul and Barnabas' will 
return." (Findlay.) The work was addressed first to the 
Jews, as was Paul's custom, but when they sharply opposed, 
the missionaries turned to the Gentiles, and labored with such 
marked success that the Jews were aroused to urgent meas- 
ures, secured the aid of the Roman officials, and drove them 
from the city (Acts 13:13-52). The missionaries stopped 
next at Iconium, from which place, after a stay of some 
length, during which a number of Gentile converts were 
made, they were again beset by persecution and compelled 
to flee : first to Lystra, and later to Derbe, near-by cities. 
At the former city Paul performed the first cure attributed 
to him in the Acts, and there also he underwent stoning 
(2 Cor. 11:25). At Derbe many converts were made. From 
here the missionaries were suffered to depart in peace. Turn- 
ing homeward, they visited the scenes of their recent labors, 
preached in Perga, and then took ship at Attalia for Antioch 
(Acts 14:1-28). The entire journey of about fourteen hun- 
dred miles by ship and on foot had occupied between two 



212 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

and three years. In this time the gospel had been preached 
over a wide extent of territory, and at least four Gentile 
Churches had been founded. 

The period of stay at Antioch was marked by an important 
conference, the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15 : 1-35 ; Gal. 
2:1-10), at which Paul's contention that Gentile converts to 
Christianity were not bound by the provisions of the Jewish 
law, was granted. The apparent exceptions were made as a 
concession to Jewish social customs. This decision was a 
vital matter, not only to the success of Christian missionary 
endeavor among the Gentiles, but to the gospel itself, since 
involved in it was the whole question of whether Christianity 
was to be merely a new branch grafted on to Judaism or 
whether it was to be a new religion superseding Judaism. 

2. Second Missionary Journey. The immediate purpose 
of Paul at the beginning of the second journey was to "visit 
the brethren in every city" wherein he had proclaimed the 
gospel (Acts 15:36-41). Owing to a disagreement between 
Paul and Barnabas as to whether John Mark, who had pre- 
viously turned back at Pamphylia, should accompany them, 
Paul chose a new companion, Silas, and proceeded overland 
through Syria and Cilicia, the scene of his first missionary 
labors, to Derbe and Lystra. 

At Lystra they found a new companion in travel, Timothy, 
a half-Jew, who was to prove himself Paul's steadfast and 
loyal friend and helper. The desire of the missionaries was 
to extend the work of evangelization into other parts of Asia 
Minor, but God had yet larger plans, and at Troas, Paul 
heard in the night the "Macedonian call" (Acts 16:1-10). 
He was not one to hesitate when the question was that of 
carrying the gospel into new fields. At once the decision was 
made to enter Europe. 

The place of his first labor was Philippi, the chief city of 
Macedonia (Acts 16:11-40). Here immediate results at- 
tended his preaching, and in a stay of considerable duration 
Paul laid the foundation of the Church which in later years 



LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 213 

he rejoiced to speak of as his "joy and crown" (Phil. 4: i). 
To one of his burning zeal it was merely incidental that at 
Philippi he suffered one of "many perils from the heathen/* 
one of many imprisonments, and one of three beatings with 
Roman rods. 

Leaving Philippi, Paul and Silas labored in Thessalonica, 
the modern Salonica, to-day a prosperous city of Turkey in 
Europe, then as now possessed of important commercial in- 
terests, a center from which the gospel might spread by land 
and by sea. Again a Church was established, and many 
Gentiles, worshipers of idols, were received into membership. 
Luke's narrative suggests a brief stay of three weeks* dura- 
tion, but we know from Paul's own words that twice while 
he remained in Thessalonica the Church at Philippi sent him 
aid (Phil. 4: 16), and also that he there worked at his trade 
of tent-making (Thess. 2:9). These statements indicate a 
longer period of time. 

At Beroea the gospel was received with pleasing readiness. 
Disturbances followed, but before an open outbreak occurred 
Paul went to some near-by seaport, and thence by ship to 
Athens, leaving Silas and Timothy to continue the work for 
a time, and then to follow him (Acts 17:10-15). At his 
departure from Macedonia he had implanted the gospel in 
three important centers, from whence it was carried rapidly 
throughout all the province. Paul's stay in Athens was short, 
and so far as we have record no definite results were accom- 
plished (Acts 17:16-34). Timothy seems to have rejoined 
him and to have been sent as Paul's messenger to Thessa- 
lonica (i Thess. 3:1), while Paul himself later pushed on 
to Corinth, the capital city of Achaia, probably his objective 
point when he left Beroea. His ministry in Corinth is of 
especial interest for a number of reasons. On his arrival 
he met Aquila and Priscilla, who were thereafter closely 
associated with him in fellowship and labors. Jewish influ- 
ence was slight in Corinth, and the Jews' attempt at perse- 
cution here signally failed. A Church was founded, to which 



214 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

was addressed two of the apostle's principal letters. Paul re- 
mained in Corinth for eighteen months (read Acts i8: 1-18; 
compare i Cor. 2:1-5; 2 Cor. 11:7-9). Probably within the 
first six months he wrote the First Letter to the Thessalo- 
nians; this was followed just a little later by the Second Let- 
ter to the Thessalonians, 

First L^tt^r to the Th^ssai^onians. 

1. Occasion and Purpose, Timothy had come from Thessa- 
lonica bearing favorable tidings concerning the Church (i Thess. 
3:6, 7) and Paul writes : (a) To return greetings and to send 
a message of affection ; (b) to comfort them concerning their 
afflictions (3 : 4, 6-8) ; (c) to exhort them as a father to even 
greater love, faith, and virtue (3: 11-13), (compare 2 : 11 ; 5 : 22) ; 
(d) to correct the misapprehension of some who thought that 
those of their friends who had died before the second coming 
of the Lord could not share in the triumph of His kingdom 
(4: 13-18) ; and (e) to warn against a tendency, which some had 
manifested, toward immorality (4 : 2-7), 

2. Character of the Letter. It is not a doctrinal letter, has 
no note of controversy, and is one of the most gentle and af- 
fectionate of Paul's Epistles (2:8, 17-20; 3:9, 10). It bears 
testimony to the expectation, which prevailed generally in the 
early Church, of the immediate return of Christ (4:16, 17). 
Special interest attaches to it by virtue of its being the first 
of the Epistles of Paul and therefore perhaps the earliest writ- 
ten document of the Christian religion. 

3. The Thessalonian Christians. The letter bears strong tes- 
timony to the Christian character of these recent converts from 
heathenism. They are an example to others (1:7), their faith 
has sounded abroad (i : 8), they have manifested strong brotherly 
love (4:9, 10) and a spirit of patience (1:3), joy (1:6), and 
long-suffering (2: 14). 

Second Letter to the Thessalonians. 

Occasion and Content. Doubtless the apostle had again re- 
ceived direct information as to the situation in the Church at 
Thessalonica. It appears from the letter that the disciples* faith 
in God had continued to increase (1:3), that brotherly love 
abounded (i : 3), and that the Christians showed much patience 
in the presence of continued affliction and persecutions (1:4). 
The Church was, however, increasingly troubled concerning the 
coming of Christ (2:1-3, 15), the moral disorder among some 
had increased (3:6), and there was a marked tendency among 
the disciples toward idleness (3 : 7-11). The coming of the Lord 
may almost be stated to be the theme of the letter. Paul 
attributes the prevalent restlessness to the belief that the day 






LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 215 

of the Lord is already at hand and declares that certain things 
must first occur. The statements concerning the "man of sin" 
and the ''mystery of lawlessness," and, in fact, the whole pass- 
age, 2:3-12, is exceedingly difficult, if not quite impossible of 
interpretation. Rather than choose among the multitude of dif- 
ferent interpretations, we probably can not do better than to say 
with Augustine, "Forsooth, I confess myself to be ignorant of 
what Paul might mean." Directions are given concerning Church 
discipline (3:6, 14, 15), and concerning idleness (3:12). The 
teaching of this Epistle on the Christian duty of courage, calm- 
ness, and industry are clear, strong, and of permanent value. 
This is the shortest letter of Paul addressed to a Church. 

From Cenchrea, a harbor of Corinth, Paul set sail for An- 
tioch ; on the way he made a hurried visit to Ephesus, where 
he left his new companions Aquila and Priscilla, then touched 
at Csesarea, and possibly went up to Jerusalem (Acts 18: 
19-22). 

His second journey occupied approximately three years, 
extended over a large part of the eastern Roman Em- 
pire, and effectually planted the gospel on the continent of 
Europe. The apostle had traveled in the slow and laborious 
fashion of ancient days scarcely less than three thousand 
miles, had labored in some of the most important centers of 
influence and civilization in the Roman world, and had dem- 
onstrated the power of the gospel to gain a foothold among 
the Gentiles under most unfavorable conditions. During this 
journey more than ever before Paul showed his splendid 
imperial spirit and made his greatest conquests for the cross. 

Tn^ Letter to th^ Gai^atians. 

I, To Whom Written, The term Galatia as used in the 
Epistle is ambiguous ; it may refer to Galatia proper, a country 
in th« interior of Asia Minor inhabited by Gallic tribes which 
had migrated thither from the West, or it may refer to the 
Roman province of Galatia, to the southwest of the former region. 
If the first mentioned view, called the North Galatian theory, is 
maintained, the letter was written to certain unknown churches 
in a region which Paul is not definitely known to have visited ; 
if the second or South Galatian view is held, the letter was 
written to the churches in Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and 
Derbe, established on the first missionary journey. The greater 
probability may be said to be with the South Galatian theory. 



2i6 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

2. Occasion and Purpose of the Letter. Originally the Gala- 
tians had received the gospel which Paul had preached with much 
enthusiasm (4: 12-15), and for a time they had run well (5 : 7). 
Recently, however, Judaizing influences had come in, probably 
under the leadership of some one individual of authority (1:8; 
3:1), and they were being led into a subserviency to the Jewish 
law (4:9, 10; 5:3). To Paul this is not merely a retrograde 
movement, it is a subversion of the gospel, an actual renuncia- 
tion of Christ (1:6; 5:2, 4). Paul writes to re-establish the 
authority of his teaching among them, and to win them back 
again to the pure gospel of salvation by faith in Jesus Christ, 
apart from works of the law. 

3. Characterisation of the Letter. This is pre-eminently the 
Epistle of Freedom. By this letter Paul settled forever the vex- 
atious question of the relation of Christians to the Jewish law. 
He perceived clearly what no other apostle seems to have realized, 
that to concede anything else than the cross of Christ as es- 
sential to salvation was to minimize and eventually to nullify the 
work of Christ. Hence he threw himself with all^ his power 
into the controversy. He writes with enthusiasm, with warmth, 
with vehemence, almost, as Weiss says, "with passionate irrita- 
tion." He maintains throughout a spirit of severe remonstrance ; 
unlike his other letters, there is here no word of congratulation, 
praise, or thanksgiving ; he writes with one thought, one purpose, 
from the first sentence to the last. 

3. Third Missionary Journey and Imprisonment in Ccfs- 
area and in Rome. When Paul again left Antioch it was 
at first to visit certain Churches located, according to the 
phrase of Luke, in "the country of Galatia and Phrygia" 
(Acts 18:23). Later, in fulfillment of his promise, he came 
to Ephesus, v^here he made what was for him a stay of great 
length — three years; a period marked by notable successes, 
heroic laBors, great privations, and strange perils. (Read 
Acts 19: I to 20: I ; 20: 18-35; I Cor. 4: 11-13; i Cor. 15: 32; 
2 Cor. 1:8-11.) From Ephesus the First Letter to the Co- 
rinthians was written. 

The First Letter to the Corinthians. 

I. Occasion and Purpose. Tidings came from Corinth to 
Paul bearing unfavorable news concerning the Corinthian church. 
He wrote them a letter (5:9), now lost, in which he rebuked 
evil and commanded them to separate themselves from immoral 
persons, promised to visit them, and gave directions concerning 
an offering. Meanwhile, members of the household of Chloe 
came to him with additional information concerning the situ- 
ation in the Church (i : 11) ; other friends also came to him 



LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 217 

from Corinth (16: 17), and finally he received a letter from the 
Church. From these various sources he learned : (1) that there 
were four distinct factions in the Church ; (b) that there v/as 
immorality in the Church, one case being particularly heinous ; 
and (c) that members of the Church had disagreements and 
carried these quarrels into the civil courts. Their letter asked 
certain practical questions concerning important matters. Paul 
wrote the Epistle in order to rebuke the evils existent in the 
Church and to answer their questions. 

2. The Church of Corinth. It must be remembered that 
Corinth was one of the most wicked cities of the ancient world, 
and that this Church was surrounded by heathen customs and 
practices ; many of its members had been but recently con- 
verted from heathenism to Christianity. It was far from being 
an ideal Church, but there were those among its members who 
were true Christians lacking in nothing (i : 4-8). For the most 
part they were poor people, without pride of birth or learning 
(1:26). 

3. Character of the Letter. It is noteworthy for its practical 
character ; it concerns itself with the everyday life of the mem- 
bers of the Church. It treats of but one doctrine, that of the 
resurrection. Paul is here revealed as the bishop of souls, con- 
cerned for the welfare of each. The letter has some of the 
greatest passages of the New Testament; every Christian should 
be familiar with the chapter on "The Greatest Thing in the 
World" (Ch. 13) ; the Resurrection Chapter (Ch. 15) ; the con- 
trast between earthly wisdom and heavenly foolishness (i : 18- 
25); the description of the apostolic labors (4:9-13), and the 
description of the Christian race (9:24-27). 

4. Outline, i. Salutation, 1:1-3. 2. Thanksgiving, i : 4-9. 
3. Practical and doctrinal instruction, i : 9 — 15 : 58. (i) Re- 
buke of divisions and the factional spirit, i : 10-42 ; (2) The 
case of the chief sinner, 5:1-13; (3) Lawsuits between Church 
members, 6:1-11; (4) Fornication, 6:12-20; (5) Concerning 
marriage, 7 : 1-40 ; (6) Concerning meats sacrificed to idols, 
8: I — II : I ; (7) Concerning head dress, 11 : 2-16; (8) Concern- 
ing the Lord's Supper, 11 : 17-34; (9) Concerning spiritual gifts, 
12:1 — 14:40; (10) The resurrection, 15:1-58. 4. Special mes- 
sages and the benediction, 16: 1-24. 

Lesson Outline: 

Birth and childhood. 

Education. 

Early career as a Pharisee and persecutor. 

Conversion and early Christian life. 

The career of Paul as apostle to the Gentiles : First mission- 
ary journey; second missionary journey, with letters 
written during the period ; third missionary journey be- 
gun. 



2i8 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Books for Reference : 

Gilbert, "The Student's Life of Paul." 

Stalker, 'The Life of Paul." 

Conybeare & Howson, *Xife and Epistles of Paul." 

Findley, **The Epistles of Paul the Apostle." 

Stevens, "The Pauline Theology." 

Sanday, "Commentary on Romans." 

Hastings, "One Volume Dictionary." 

Commentaries on the various Epistles in the "International 

Critical Commentary" series, and in the Cambridge Bible 

for Schools and Colleges. 

Topics for Special Study: 

1. The early education of Paul as a Jewish youth. 

2. The dissatisfaction of Paul with Judaism. 

3. Paul as a missionary. 

4. Paul's Christian view of the law. 

5. The inner life of an early Christian Church as seen in 

the Epistles to the Corinthians. 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. Influence of his Tarsian birth upon the life of Paul. 

2. To what extent is the conversion of Paul to be taken as 

a normal type of conversion? 

3. Compare the labors of Paul to those of a modern mis- 

sionary. 

4. The relation of Paul to the Churches which he founded. 

5. The cliief teachings of the Epistle to the Galatians. 



CHAPTER XIX 
LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL— CONTINUED 

Third Missionary Journe^y — Continued. When Paul wrote 
First Corinthians he was expecting before long to leave 
Ephesus. This he probably did. There is a total absence 
of details as to his movements after leaving that city. We 
do know this, that some time later he went into Macedonia 
(Acts 20:i), having been disappointed in his expectation of 
meeting Titus in Troas with tidings from the Corinthian 
Church (2 Cor. 2:12, 13). After he came into Macedonia 
his expectation was fulfilled — he met Titus, and in response, 
doubtless, to the message which he brought, wrote the Second 
Epistle to the Corinthians. 

Th^ Seicond L^ttkr to th^ Corinthians. 

1. Occasion and Purpose. There is evidence that much 
more by way of communication passed between Paul and the 
Church at Corinth than has come down to us. Both our first 
and second letters are members of a series, of which others of 
the series have been lost. The apostle is intensely interested in 
this Church ; it has caused him much care, perplexity, and grief, 
but he yearns over it as one of his own children. Titus has 
come with information and messages, and he writes out of 
affection and solicitude for them, in self-defense against the 
false charges of enemies, and to warn, exhort, and instruct 
them. 

2. Situation in the Church. In general the condition of 
the Church has improved. The guilty have shown grief and 
repentance (7 : 9) ; the factional spirit has to a large extent 
disappeared, but in one respect the situation is intensified — 
defiant and slanderous opposition to Paul is manifested by some 
in the Church (Chapters 10 and 11). 

3. Character and Content of the Letter. This letter is very 
different from the calm, clear, and definite i Corinthians. It 
is exceedingly emotional, showing mingled joy, grief, and indig- 
nation, is involved in style, almost impossible of analysis, and 
full of digressions in subject. It is intensely personal; the 

219 



220 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

apostle bares his heart and speaks forth his inmost thought 
and feeling. Here only he speaks of two secret matters of 
his inner life — his rapture of the "third heaven" (12:1-4), 
and his "thorn in the flesh" (12:7-9). As no other letter, it 
shows the intense personal opposition Paul encountered in his 
work ; it was charged against him that his bodily presence was 
weak (10:10), that he was rude in speech (11:6), his words 
of no account (10:10), that he corrupted the Word of God 
(2: 17), that his gospel was veiled (4*. 3), that he boasted un- 
duly (10:8), that he was beside himselt (5:3). These and 
many other slanderous and unjust charges may be read in the 
statements which Paul makes in self-defense. 

Two especially noteworthy passages of the letter are — on 
giving, Chapters 8 and 9, and on his own labors and sufferings, 
11:21-33. 

Paul made a tour through Macedonia, visiting the 
Churches, and then proceeded into Achaia, where he spent 
three months (Acts 20:2, 3). During this time he probably 
fulfilled his long-delayed promise of visiting the Church at 
Corinth (i Cor. 16:5-7; 2 Cor. 1:15, 16, 23; 12:14; 13:1). 
While staying with Gains (Rom. 16:23; i Cor. 1:14) in 
Corinth, he wrote the Epistle to the Romans, 

Th^ LETT:eR TO TH^ ROMANS. 

1. Occasion and Purpose. Unlike the other letters of Paul 
to Churches, this was written to a Church which Paul had never 
visited. In pursuance of his plan to preach the gospel in the 
great centers of the empire, Paul had long desired to undertake 
work in Rome (i : 13). At the time of writing, his purpose 
was hindered by the urgency of his journey to Jerusalem; that 
accomplished, he will come to them (15:22-29). Prevented, for 
the time being, from preaching to them, he will present to them 
his gospel in writing. Possibly he feared that his enemies, who 
had perverted the true gospel in other places, would reach Rome 
in advance of him, and desired to establish them beforehand 
by the spiritual gifts of his instruction and exhortation (i: 11). 

2. Content of the Letter. The central theme is stated in 
I : 16-17 — the gospel the power of God unto salvation to every 
one that believes, both Jew and Greek. In elaboration of the 
theme, the apostle declares that sin and guilt are universal 
and justification by works of the law is impossible, i : 18 — 3: 20; 
in Christ Jesus a new righteousness, achieved through faith 
apart from the law, has been manifested, 3 : 21-26 ; this salva- 
tion carries with it rich spiritual blessings, 5:1-11; whereas 
through Adam sin and death entered into the world, now 
through Jesus Christ has come this free gift of justification, 



LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 221 

5 : 12-21 ; the justified man is dead to sin, Ch. 6; dead to law, 
Ch. 7. A triumphant assertion of the glory and blessedness 
of the Christian salvation follows, 8:18-39. Chapters q, 10, 
and II treat of the rejection of Israel and the acceptance of 
the Gentiles. In 12:1 — 15:13, Paul exhorts his brethren to 
offer themselves to God, to live worthily as a member of the 
body of Christ, as a subject of the civil government, and as a 
member of society. The letter closes with personal messages, 
concluding exhortations, and doxology, 15 •* 14 — 16:27. 

From Corinth, Paul turns his face towards Jerusalem with 
the purpose of conveying to the poor among the saints an 
offering which he had been gathering gradually for over two 
years. (See I Cor. 16: i ; 2 Cor. 9: 6-22; 2 Cor. 9:2.) Seven 
men, representatives of the Churches, and Luke accompanied 
him (Acts 20:4-6). Traveling by a circuitous route, the 
company finally reached Jerusalem, eager to present to their 
Jewish brethren the gifts of the Gentile Christians, to hear 
testimony to the fruits of the gospel in new fields, and to 
defend the labors and the preaching of the missionary apostle 
against the charges of his enemies (Acts 20:4 to 21:16). 
But this mission, conceived in love and sacrifice, was to meet 
with tragic failure. Luke barely mentions the reception of 
the party by the Jerusalem brethren, and hurries on into the 
shameful account of the attack of the Jewish multitude upon 
Paul, his rescue by the chief captain, his speech to the people 
in Hebrew, his escape from scourging by a declaration of his 
Roman citizenship, his address before the Sanhedrin, the plot 
of the Jews to kill him, his conveyance escorted by soldiers 
to Caesarea, his hearing, first before Felix, the procurator, and 
then before Felix and Drusilla; his detention for two years 
in prison without trial, his preliminary examination before 
Porcius Festus, successor to Felix ; his appeal to the emperor, 
and his hearing before Agrippa II, the tetrarch, and Bernice. 
(Read Acts 21: 17 to 26:32.) 

Paul's appeal to the emperor necessitated a voyage to 
Rome, the capital of the empire, for trial. Luke gives account 
of the voyage as a fellow traveler, records a conference of 
Paul with the Jews in Rome, and abruptly ends the Book of 



222 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Acts with the statement that for two years Paul was accorded 
the privilege of living in his own rented quarters and of 
teaching the gospel to all who came to him (Acts 27 : i to 
28:31). Additional light is shed on the imprisonment by- 
statements in the epistles. (See Phil. 1:12-14; 4:18, 22; 
Eph. 3:1; 4:1; 6:21, 22; Philemon i, 8-14, 22-24.) During 
this imprisonment Paul wrote the letters to the Philippians, 
Philemon, Colossians, and Ephesians. 

Thk L^tt^r to the: Philippians. 

1. Occasion and Purpose. A remarkable bond of love, 
sympathy, and fellowship existed between this Church and its 
founder. Twice out of their poverty they sent him voluntary 
pecuniary aid. They were his solace in affliction, his joy and 
his crown. In them he found constant reasons for rejoicing. 
The letter is an expression of this relationship. It bears a 
message of love. This is the real occasion for writing. An 
opportunity for sending the message to them is afforded by the 
departure of Epaphroditus from Rome for Philippi. He has 
had no earlier opportunity of thanking them for their gift 
sent to him through this same messenger (Phil. 4: 18). 

2. Characterisation of the Letter. This is a real letter, 
informal, familiar — a spontaneous utterance of love and grati- 
tude. It has no logical plan, no doctrinal arguments. In the 
simple terms of intimate friendly intercourse, the essential sub- 
stance of the gospel is presented. Paul is here, not the soldier 
engaged in battle, not the keen, abstruse advocate advancing 
arguments, but the tender, warm-hearted, loving friend, pastor, 
and brother. Read this letter often — the whole letter at one 
sitting, for its high spirit. It is splendid spiritual tonic. 

Th^ Letter to Philemon. 

The occasion of this letter is clearly shown in it. Onesimus, 
a runaway slave of Philemon of Colossae, in Rome came under 
the influence of Paul and became a Christian. Paul sends him 
back to his owner in the care of Tychicus, and with him this 
letter. It is, therefore, a letter to an individual on a private 
matter, but it is of inestimable worth for the revelation it 
bears of the power of the gospel to win and transform a poor 
slave, to soften harsh heathen customs, and to mediate between 
the classes of ancient society. "This letter became the Magna 
Charta of freedom throughout the world" (Farrar). 

Thu Letter to the Colossians. 

I. Occasion and Purpose. This letter, as Romans, was 
written to a Church not founded by Paul. Word had come to 
the apostle through Epaphras of the love and faith of the 



LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 223 

Colossian Christians (1:7, 8), but also of false teaching dis- 
seminated among them. This teaching apparently had dis- 
placed Jesus Christ as the object of their reverence, love, faith, 
and worship, and had involved them in philosophical specula- 
tion (2:8), in the observance of circumcision, of feast days, 
new moons, and Sabbath days (2:11, 16), in the worship of 
angels (2: 18), and had led them to profess a hidden wisdom 
(2:3), to show spiritual pride and exclusiveness, and to a neg- 
lect of the fundamental moral principles of Christianity. Paul 
writes to correct these errors and to restore Jesus Christ to His 
rightful place among them. 

2. Characterization of the Letter, Colossians presents more 
fully than any other Epistle Paul's doctrine of the person of 
Christ. Over against the false teaching which had proven so 
attractive to them, Paul sets the thought of the supremely ex- 
alted nature and perfect spiritual work of Jesus Christ. Col. 
I : 15-20 should be remembered by every Christian as a most 
remarkable statement of the pre-eminence of the Savior. 

Th^ L^tt^r to th^ Eph]SSians. 

1. To Whom Written, The words "at Ephesus," of 1:1, 
are not found in three of the most important ancient manu- 
script copies. Paul was intimately acquainted with the Chris- 
tians at Ephesus from his prolonged stay there, yet this letter 
has no personal greetings. Many hold that the letter was written, 
not to any one Church, but as an encyclical letter to be sent 
in turn to various Churches, the Church at Ephesus among 
others. (Note Col. 4: 16, last clause.) 

2. Characterization of the Letter, This letter is character- 
ized by: (i) Its presentation of the exalted nature and office 
of Christ (1:20-23; 2:13-22); (2) its setting forth of the 
eternal purpose of God (2:3-5; 2:4-7; 3:9-12); (3) a broad 
catholic spirit ; there is here no tone of controversy ; the thought 
transcends local transitional issues and presents a picture of the 
triumphant universal Church of Christ of the future (2:11-22; 
3:1-12; 4:4); (4) an exalted ideal of the Christian character 
and life (1:4^ 1S723; 2:10; 3:14-21; 4:1-3; 5:1; 6:10-18). 
'*In the depth of its theology, in the loftiness of its morals, in 
the way in which the simplest moral truths are based upon the 
profoundest religious doctrine, this Epistle is unparalleled. It 
is the most sublime, the most profound, the most adanced, the 
final utterance of Paul's gospel to the Gentiles." (Farrar.) 

4. The Closing Years, The concluding statement of Acts 
leads to the inference that Paul was released from imprison- 
ment, since no word is said concerning his death in that con- 
nection. There is no place in the preceding history where 



2 24 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

the Pauline pastoral epistles seem to fit. By references in 
them to persons and places, together with statements of his 
hopes and plans for the future in the earlier letters, it is 
possible to form some idea of the ministry and travel of the 
last years of the apostle's life. We may be sure that a first 
thought was to visit once again as many as possible of the 
Churches he had founded from Corinth through Achaia, 
Macedonia, Asia Minor, and Syria. He had long desired to 
preach the gospel in Spain; tradition tells us that this desire 
was gratified. Places definitely mentioned are: Macedonia 
(i Tim. 1:33), Crete (Titus 1:5), Nicopolis (Titus 3:12), 
Troas (2 Tim. 4:13), Corinth (2 Tim. 4:20), Miletus 
(2 Tim. 4:20). During these journeyings Fi7'st Timothy and 
Titus were written. 

The First Lette;r to Timothy. 

1. Authenticity of the Pastoral Epistles. From the pas- 
toral character of the two letters addressed to Timothy and the 
letter to Titus, the three have been commonly known as the 
Pastoral Epistles. There is not the same unanimity of judg- 
ment among scholars concerning the genuineness of the Pas- 
toral Epistles as concerning the earlier letters. Some profess 
not to be able to find a place or time for them in Paul's life ; 
others object to them on the ground of their differences in 
vocabulary and style from the earlier letters, and yet others 
on the ground that they reflect a different condition in the 
Church. Many scholars hold that while these letters may have 
been somewhat amended by later hands, yet the substance of 
them is from the apostle. In the thought of the great majority 
of the Church, they always have been and doubtless will ever 
continue to be indissolubly connected with the name of the 
apostle Paul. 

2. Purpose and Content. This is a letter of general instruc- 
tion and exhortation to Paul's ''true child in the faith." It 
reflects a condition in the Church at Ephesus, to which Timothy 
held an intimate relationship, which Paul desired to correct ; 
he warns against false speculation and against legalistic teach- 
ing (1:3-11; 4:1-5; 6:20, 21), emphasizes the importance of 
Timothy himself living above all reproach (5:21, 22; 4:12; 
6: 11-16), sets a high standard in the type of men to be selected 
as office bearers in the Church (3:1-13), and shows concern 
about the order and conduct of Church government and services 
of worship (2:1, 2, 8; 3: 14, 15). 



LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 225 

The Letti^r to Titus. 

Purpose and Content The letter is one of counsel and 
instruction to Titus, whom Paul had left in Crete to "set in 
order the things that were wanting and appoint elders in every 
city" (i : 5). The apostle urges that certain qualifications be 
observed in the selection of these office-bearers (i : 5-10), and 
at the same time presents a lofty moral ideal for all Christians, 
the aged, the younger people, and slaves (2:1-15), exhorting 
Titus to himself present an example of good works {2:7, 8). 
With I Timothy this letter lays special stress on "sound doc- 
trine" and "good works." The aggressive, original work of the 
great apostle has been done, his chief interest now is in guard- 
ing the integrity of the teaching he has committed to his dis- 
ciples and protecting the fold from the old foes against whom 
he had often striven in the past and from the new enemies now 
for the first time appearing. The instructions concerning Church 
organization and administration are a part of this interest. 
These letters set his final seal to the work and teachings of his 
life." 

On some unknown charge the aged apostle was again ar- 
rested, taken for the second time to Rome as a prisoner, and 
placed on trial. At his first hearing he was not condemned, 
but was remanded for further trial. From his dungeon he 
writes his last letter, Second Timothy. 

The Second Letter to Timothy. 

1. Occasion and Purpose. This is the last will and testa- 
ment of the great apostle. ^ Addressed to his beloved son Timothy, 
it is even more personal in tone than the first letter. He longs 
to see Timothy yet once more ; "Do your utmost to come to me 
soon," he says (3:8). But he may not reach him in time, 
therefore he exhorts him to renewed zeal, courage, and activity 
(1:6, 7; 2:4-6), to keep faithfully the trust he has bequeathed 
to him (i : 13, 14; 2:2, 15), and warns him of perilous times 
which will come (3 : 1-17). 

2. PauVs Situation Preceding His Death. This letter brings 
us very near to the persecuted and suffering apostle. His 
situation in these last days is in some respects most pitiable. 
One and another of his friends has deserted him until, save for 
his faithful companion in travels, Luke, he is entirely alone. 
The government is now his fierce foe (4: 7). His imprisonment 
is very severe; it was difficult even to find him (i : 17). He 
had felt many times before the pangs of hunger and thirst 
without a word of complaint ; now, in his damp, cold dungeon 
he sighs for his cloak (4: 13). The only prospect before him 
is that of immediate death i:^: 6), His lonely heart cries out 
for sympathy and companionship (4:9, 21). But in spite of all, 

15 



226 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

there runs through the entire letter an undertone of calm cour- 
age and triumphant faith. 

Some time about (i^j A. D., PauPs expectation of martyr- 
dom was fulfilled. We can not follow him to the unknown 
place of execution, but our last view of him is that of a grand 
old soldier, bent with age, broken by sufferings, but still un- 
broken in courage and faith, rejoicing in the companionship 
of an ever-present Lord, enduring tribulation with patience 
and persecution with joy; assured of the past, rejoicing in 
the present, confident of the future. He faces death and is 
more than content. We can not doubt that with this spirit 
he met the ax of the Roman executioner. 



VI. The Man and His Work. 

The debt of the Christian world to Paul could hardly be 
overstated. He found Christianity a provincial religion, un- 
organized, unpopular among the people of its own origin, 
unknown to the world at large, without a literature, almost 
without doctrinal formulation, and with exceedingly few in- 
fluential adherents. At his death, after not more than thirty- 
four years, largely through his influence and activity and 
that of his personal adherents, Christianity was world-wide 
in extent, had obtained a secure foothold in most of the im- 
portant centers of the Roman Empire, was the religion of 
many thousands of Gentiles as well as Jews, some of its ad- 
herents belonging to the highest circles, had an ecclesiastical 
organization, had been formulated into doctrines that are 
still held by large portions of its constituency, and had called 
into existence the larger part of its sacred literature. 

Paul was peculiarly fitted by nature and by grace for 
his great task. He possessed to a remarkable degree the 
imperial spirit. He could not possibly have been the leader 
of a sect or party. He was the first of the followers of Jesus 
to fully perceive the universal aspects of the Christian faith. 
Like Alexander, he ever sighed for new worlds to conquer. 



LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 227 

He had a genius for organization. He transformed the 
Christians from a disorganized band fleeing before persecu- 
tion into a compact army advancing to world conquest. He 
lacked the poetical mind, was not interested in art, and seems 
to have been entirely blind to the beauty and charms of 
nature. He admits also that he lacked the polish and art of 
the classical orator, that he was "rude in speech;" yet by his 
incisive utterance, logical force, ready wit and sarcasm, his 
adroitness and tact, his power of analysis, his emotional fire, 
he proved to be a most powerful advocate. He invariably 
compelled assent or aroused opposition. He had a finely 
strung nervous organization, was subject to visions and rev- 
elations, and to sudden revulsions of feeling, passing in a 
moment from calmness to vehemence, from affection to in- 
dignation. He was ever a man of intense moral conviction 
and deep religious interest. After his conversion he was 
wholly given up to his Lord — with all the wealth of his 
emotional nature, with all the energies of his physical being, 
with all the powers of his mind, absolutely devoted to Jesus 
Christ. He was a slave who gloried in his captivity. Truly, 
for him to live was Christ. It was this that gave him his 
power. Miracles are ascribed to him, but he himself attached 
little importance to them; he "spake with tongues," but did 
not regard the fact as of great importance. 

The Churches loved him. Men were bound to him by 
bonds of intense brotherly affection. It could not well be 
otherwise when we recall the deep love which he held toward 
his converts; they were his "children," and he yearned after 
them with a mother's love. 

His letters were doubtless all written under stress, mes- 
sages of the hour, and the immediate occasion. They are the 
letters of Paul, the missionary, the evangelist, the advocate; 
not at all of Paul the scholar or the theologian. He never 
paused to polish a paragraph, to round out a period, or to 
fully and systematically state a doctrine. "His thoughts hurry 
each other" through sentences that bear the impress of ur- 



228 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

gency and haste. Yet from this very fact they have the ad- 
vantage of close contact with practical life; they touch our 
lives and move and help us because they were nev^er far re- 
moved from every-day life. They have a perennial freshness 
and charm; to study them closely at any time is to find in 
them new meaning and new power. 

Lesson Outline: 

Third missionary journey and imprisonment in Caesarea and 
Rome (continued), with letters written during the pe- 
riod. 

The closing years, with letters of the period. 

The man and his work. 






Books for Reference: 

Gilbert, "The Student's Life of Paul." 

Stalker, *'The Life of Paul." 

Conybeare & Howson, "Life and Epistles of Paul." 

Findley, "The Epistles of Paul the Apostle." 

Stevens, "The Pauline Theology." 

Sanday, "Commentary on Romans." 

Hastings, "One Volume Dictionary." 

Commentaries on the various Epistles in the "International 

Critical Commentary" series, and in the Cambridge Bible 

for Schools and Colleges. 

Topics for Special Study: 

1. Paul as a writer. 

2. Paul as a theologian. 

3. Paul's doctrine of the future life. 

4. The friends of Paul. 

5. Greek influence in the teaching of Paul. 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. The value of Roman citizenship to Paul. 

2. Tho effect of Paul's imprisonment upon him. 

3. How is the fact to be accounted for that one man had 
so large a part in the founding of the Christian Church 

among the Gentiles? 

4. What was Paul's claim to apostleship? 

5. Discuss the religious life of Timothy. 



LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 



229 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE LIFE OF PAUL. 

According to Various Scholars. 



Events. 


n 
1 


1 


n 

I 


P 


W 

c 
►1 

1 





3 
1 


Conversion 


36(?) 


36 34) 


34-35 


3o{?) 


36 


31-32 


33 


First Visit to Jerusalem, . . 


38(?) 


38 37) 


37 (38) 


33 


39 


34-35 


35(?) 


First Missionary Journey, . 


48-49 


48(?) 


45-50 


45-46 


46-49 


Before 

♦5 ^ 

45 or 46 


47-49 


Conference at Jerusalem, . 


50 


51 


51 (52) 


47 


50 or 51 


49 


Second Missionary Journey, 


51-54 


51-54 


51-54 

(52-55) 


48-50 


51-54 


46-49 


50-53 


Third Missionary Journey, 


54-58 


54-58 


54-58 

(55-59) 


50-54 


54-58 


49-52 


53-57 


Arrest at Jerusalem, . . . . 


58 


58 


58 (59) 


54 


58 


53 


57 


First Roman Captivity, . . 


61-63 


61-63 


61-63 

(62-64) 


57-59 


61-63 


56-58 


60-62 


Death 


68 


68(?) 


64 


. . . . 


65 


58 


67 





CHAPTER XX 
GENERAL EPISTLES AND REVELATION 

I. The Catholic Epistles. 

From the time of the Church Fathers this term has been 
employed to designate the group of seven New Testament 
books bearing the names of James, Peter, John, and Jude. 
The origin and meaning of the term in this connection is un- 
certain, but it is reasonable to suppose that it was applied to 
these letters as addressed, not to individuals or particular 
Churches, but to the Church universal, or to groups of 
Churches. For our purpose we also include under this head 
the Epistle to the Hebrews. 

I. The Epistle of James. 

Authorship. The author styles himself "James, a servant 
of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ** (i*- i). As the name 
was very common among the Jews, this is indecisive. Tra- 
dition identifies the writer as James the Lord's brother, and 
this is generally held to be correct. 

To Whom Written, "To the twelve tribes which are of 
the dispersion," says the superscription ( i : i ) ; i. e., Jewish 
Christians outside of Palestine. 

Purpose, To fortify Christians in their trials (1:2; 2: 
6-7; 5:1-6), and to correct errors in their personal conduct 
and their Church life (1:19-21; 2:14-26; 4:1 to 5^11; 2: 
1-9). 

General Character. The epistle is characterized by (a) a 
lack of plan; one subject follows another without any appar- 

230 



GENERAL EPISTLES AND REVELATION 231 

ent order or connection of thought; (b) an absence of de- 
veloped doctrine; we miss the doctrinal emphasis of Paul's 
writings ; the Christian faith is stated in terms of moral ex- 
cellence; he that doeth righteousness is accepted of God (c) 
a pronounced Jewish tone; reference is frequently made to 
the law, and hardly at all to the gospel, and there'is a marked 
dependence on the wisdom books of the Old Testament; 
(d) its reflection of the sharp social contrasts prevailing in 
the civilization of the time; (e) its nearness to nature, and 
the number of allusions to nature and to natural objects. 

2. The First Epistle of Peter. 

Authorship. The letter names Peter as the author, and 
this has seldom been disputed. The argument for its gen- 
uineness is very strong. 

To Whom Written. It is addressed to Christians in the 
provinces of Asia Minor. The words "the elect who are so- 
journers of the dispersion" (1:1) points to Jews, but other 
statements, as 2:9, 10 ; 4:3, clearly indicate that the author 
also had Gentile Christians in mind. 

Purpose. Those to whom the apostle writes are suffering 
severe persecution (1:7; 3: 17; 4: 12), and he writes to com- 
fort and sustain them. The letter is especially rich in con- 
solation and has been a source of strength to those in trial 
through all ages. They were also subjected to manifold 
temptations from their immoral heathen environment ( i : 
13-16; 2:11, 12; 4:1-6), and the apostle exhorts them to 
purity and holiness. The letter has many words and phrases 
which remind us of Peter's personality and of incidents in 
his life. 

3. The Second Epistle of Peter. 

Authorship. This letter was late in obtaining recognition 
by the Church, and that Peter is its author has been strenu- 
ously denied by many authorities, both ancient and modern. 
Its authorship must be regarded as uncertain. 



232 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

To Whom Written. The letter does not state; Spitta and 
Zahn, two scholars who have elaborately defended the Petrine 
authorship of the Epistle, hold that it was written to Jewish 
Christians. 

Purpose. Three prominent passages of the letter speak of 
false teachers (2:1-22; ^'-3-7, 16). These statements show 
the main purpose to be to guard the readers against heret- 
ical teachings. 

4. The First Epistle of John. 

Authorship, This Epistle, in common with Hebrews, is 
peculiar in not naming an author in the superscription. From 
a very early period in the history of the Church it has been 
almost universally attributed to the Apostle John. 

To Whom Written. Probably as an encyclical letter to 
Churches in Asia Minor. 

Character and Purpose. It has not at all the form of a 
letter, lacking not only an address, but the customary per- 
sonal messages and greetings. It is more nearly a sermon or 
pastoral address. The purpose is stated in 1:3, 4, to be that 
the readers may have fellowship with the writer, himself an 
eye-witness of the Word of Life, and share his fellowship 
with the Father and with Jesus Christ, and thereby make his 
joy^ full. To this end he proceeds to announce the message 
which he has received, laying special stress upon certain con- 
ceptions and truths, as f Uows : God is light (i:S); they 
who truly have fellowship with him "walk in the light," i. e., 
do deeds of practical righteousness (1:6, 7; 2:9-11; 3: 
17-23); the love of God for His children (3:1, 2; 4:8-11, 
16, 19) ; the obligation of Christians to love one another 
(2:10; 3:10-24; 4:7-21; 5:1, 2); the propitiatory work of 
Jesus Christ (1:7; 2:1, 2; 4:10). Other prominent ideas 
of the Fourth Gospel are emphasized, as "abiding in Christ" 
(2:24, 28, and elsewhere). 






GENERAL EPISTLES AND REVELATION 233 

5, 6. The Second and Third Epistles of John. 

Authorship. Undoubtedly by the same author as the First 
Epistle. 

To Whom Written. The Second Epistle to a particular 
individual, or to a Church; the third to a certain Gaius. 

Character and Purpose, Both letters are personal; the 
first to warn against false teachers, whom he has reason to 
believe those addressed are in danger of; the second to com- 
mend the hospitality and Christian character of Gaius and 
to assure him of the writer^s expectation of a visit shortly. 

7. The Epistle of Jude. 

Authorship. The superscription names as the author 
"Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ, a brother of James;" by 
which is probably meant that Jude who was a brother of 
James, the author of the Epistle and brother of our Lord. 

To Whom Written, The intended readers are unnamed, 
and there are no means of determining who they may have 
been. 

Purpose. The situation closely resembles that of Second 
Peter. False teachers, who are also immoral in conduct, 
have come in and boldly propagate their errors in the meet- 
ings of the congregation. The author writes to expose and 
condemn these ungodly men, and to exhort his readers to 
adhere to and contend for the true faith, and to exemplify 
purity of life. The letter contrib^ttes to an appreciation of 
the extent and seriousness of the difficulties with which the 
early Church had to contend. 

8. Hebrews. 

Authorship. Many different names have been proposed, 
but scholars have never been able to come to agreement. 
The one almost unanimous opinion is that it was not writ- 
ten by the Apostle Paul. 



234 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

To Whom Written, Probably to Jewish Christians of 
some definite locality. 

Purpose, To prevent apostasy from Christianity to Juda- 
ism, or, as suggested by some writers, to prevent apostasy 
from Christianity altogether, (Note, e, g., 3:12-15; 10: 
23-39.) 

Contents. The author endeavors to achieve his purpose 
by elaborately setting forth in a series of comparisons the 
superiority of the religion of Jesus Christ to that which pre- 
ceded it. The keyword of the book is "better." The central 
thought of Christ is that of His priestly function, by which 
Christians are enabled to have free access to God, and are 
brought into filial relation with Him. The apologetic pres- 
entation (1:1 — 10:18) is followed by a series of urgent ex- 
hortations to steadfastness (10:19 — 13:25). The following 
outline of the argumentative section will enable the student 
to trace the course of the argument: (i) The revelation 
through the Son superior to that through the prophets (i : 
1-3); (2) to that through angels (1:4 — 2:18); (3) the 
Son higher than Moses the faithful servant (3:1-6); the 
statement followed by warnings and exhortations (3 : 7 — 
4-13); (4) the Son a High Priest superior to Aaron and 
his successors (5: i — 10: 18), not of the Levitical line, but of 
the order of Melchisedek, the ideal type. 

II. The Book of Revelation. 

Authorship. The writer speaks of himself as John, serv- 
ant of God. He has been generally identified with John, 
author of the Fourth Gospel, but this is disputed on various 
grounds by many modern scholars. Some assign it to an- 
other John, the presbyter; others to an unknown author. 

Character and Purpose, Revelation stands almost alone 
in the Scripture. With Daniel it belongs to that class of 
Jewish writing which succeeded prophecy, the Apocalypses. 
Many examples are found in the Jewish literature of the pe- 
riod. This literature was the outgrowth of persecution and 



GENERAL EPISTLES AND REVELATION 235 

spiritual and temporal distress, and was written "to solve the 
difficulties connected with a belief in God's righteousness and 
the suffering condition of His servants on earth." (Charles.) 
The writer would beget patience, resignation, steadfastness, 
and endurance in his readers by the assurance that in spite 
of present distress God intends a mighty and sure deliver- 
ance for His people. The message is couched in obscure 
symbols, images, and in visions. 

Interpretation and Present Value, The key to the mean- 
ing of much of the book is not now in the possession of the 
Church. Innumerable schemes of interpretation have been 
applied to the visions as prophecies of the present and of the 
future, with the result of confusion and grave error. The 
value of the book lies not in a disclosure of unseen mysteries, 
but in its testimony to the faith and hope of the persecuted 
Church of Christ and its power to comfort, sustain, and in- 
spire burdened, sorrowing, and oppressed souls of every age. 

Lesson Outline: 

The Catholic Epistles : James, First Peter, Second Peter, 
First John, Second John, Third John, Jude, Hebrews. 
The Book of Revelation. 



Books for Reference : 

Bennett, **The General Epistles." 

Plummer, "The Epistles of St. John." 

Lumby, "The Epistles of St. Peter." 

Farrar, "The Messages of the Books." 

Commentaries on separate Epistles : James, Mayor, "The 
Epistle of James ;" Hebrews, Goodspeed, "Epistle to the 
Hebrews ;" Revelation, Swete, "The Apocalypse of St. 
John." 

Topics for Special Study: 

1. Comparison of the Book of James with the Sermon on 

the Mount. 

2. The teaching of First John as related to the Fourth 

Gospel. 

3. The purpose of the Epistle to the Hebrews. 

4. Non-biblical apocalyptic literature of the Jews. 



236 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 

Topics for Class Discussion: 

1. Reasons for holding that Hebrews was not written by 

Paul. 

2. Principal teachings of First Peter. 

3. The state of the Church as reflected in the letters to 

Timothy and to Titus. 

4. As reflected in the first three chapters of Revelation. 

5. The counsels of Paul to teachers in the epistles to Tim- 

othy and to Titus. 



23< 

To 



out iS 1909- 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: May 2005 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Dnve 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724)779-2111 



1 



til 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




014 240 283 A 






'W 



^'^'n< 



.>fU('»i 



